ELEMENTS 






£>F 




m 



*»«.^ 



m 1 



By MAJOR & C, MARSHALL 



Ositiid Sta?s* -.€a v' 







1HIRD MEWSED EDITION 




Class 
Book. 









(topght'N?.. 



i ; 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofhippol01mars 




Bkeak o' Day, Thoroughbred S addle-Horse. 

Courtesy of Gerald T. Hanley, Esq. 



Elements of Hippology 



By 



MAJOR F. C. MARSHALL, 

U. S. CAVALRY 



Prepared for the Department of Tactics, 
United States Military Academy 



Third and Revised Edition. 




1914. 



s 2- 



Copyright, 1906, by 
F. C. Marshall. 

Copyright, 1908, by 

Franklin Hudson Publishing Co. 

Kansas City, Mo. 



Copyright, 1914, by 

Franklin Hudson Publishing Co., 

Kansas City, Mo. 



OCT 30 1914 






CI.A3873S6 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 



It is due to the late General Sir Frederick Fitzwygram to give 
credit to his book, "Horses and Stables," for very much that is 
contained in this work, and the author wishes to thank his widow 
and her son, the present Sir Frederick Fitzwygram, for their kind 
permission to quote from it. 

"Horses and Stables" has been the hand-book and guide of 
the American cavalry officer since the issuance of its first edition, 
and it is deeply regretted by us all that the fifth edition is to be 
the last to be revised by its talented author. 

In the preparation of these notes the works of Dr. James Law, 
General Carter, Captain Hayes, James Fillis, Gouboux and Barriere, 
and Captain Seton, and the admirable work of the Department of 
Agriculture on the " Diseases of the Horse," which have been the 
author's guide during his service as a cavalry officer, have also been 
freely consulted. Whatever ideas he has developed in his experi- 
ence flow from suggestions received from these and similar works. 
Nothing new is claimed or attempted. The effort has been made 
to write a comprehensive book that will cover, in outline only, all 
general subjects that a horseman should know. 

All of the anatomical illustrations are taken from "Diseases 
of the Horse," a public document issued by the Bureau of Animal 
Industry, Department of Agriculture. The photographs for the 
rest of the illustrations, except as noted, were taken by Mr. W. H. 
Stockbridge, under the author's supervision, from horses and polo- 
ponies at the Military Academy, and represent ordinary conditions 
only. No effort is made to discuss the so-called "horse of luxury," 
which is, after all, only an exceptionally good specimen of the type 
that ought to be adhered to in purchasing a horse for any special 
purpose. 

Special thanks is due the editor of "The Rider and Driver," 
Mr. Samuel Walter Taylor, for his kindness in loaning photographs, 
and for the cover design. 

United States Militaky Academy, 
West Point, New York, 
January 1, 1908. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Chapter. Page. 

I. — General Discussion, . .. ' . 9 

II. — Age, as Determined by the Teeth, . . . . 31 

III. — Inflammation, 51 

IV.— The Head and Neck, . . ... , . 58 

V. — Bits: Their Action, Influence, and Proper Use, . . 69 

VI.— The Front Leg, ........ 89 

VII.— The Back, . . ... . . . . .104 

VIII.— The Trunk, 114 

IX— The Hind Leg, . . . 120 

X.— The Horse's Foot, . 130 

XL — Diseases of the Foot, 137 

XII. — The Principles of Horseshoeing for Horses with Ordi- 
nary Feet, . . 148 

XIII. — The Heart, Lungs, and Air-Passages, .... 161 

XIV. — The Digestive Apparatus, 170 

XV. — Stable Management, 176 

XVI. — Endurance of Horses. — Vices. — Punishment, . . 185 

XVII.— The Care of Sick Horses, .199 

XVIIL— Preventable Diseases, . 204 

XIX. — Irregularities of Action, 209 

XX. — Judging Horses and the Examination for Soundness, 215 



CHAPTER I. 



A GENERAL DISCUSSION. 

It is useless to attempt the description in a few words of the 
origin and development of the modern horse;* we know that as 
far back as authentic history reaches, horses have been used by 
men for the manifold purposes of peace and war, toil and recreation. 
For many centuries past two general types of horses have been 
preserved. One, which may be called the thoroughbred type, is 
a light, active, speedy animal, possessing great endurance. It finds 
its best uses for saddle and racing purposes. The other type is more 
powerful, but not so active, nor as fast. This type may be called, 
in general terms, the Flanders type. It is used for draft purposes. 
The many special breeds and families of horses now in use have been 
developed by crossing these two types. 

A thoroughbred animal is, in the broadest meaning of the term, 
one of pure blood, descended for many generations from animals 
of the same sort. Thus, one may speak with perfect propriety of 
a thoroughbred fox-terrier dog, or of a thoroughbred Jersey cow, or 
of a thoroughbred Cotswold sheep. A thoroughbred horse, however, 
is a race-horse — not necessarily used for racing purposes — descended 
through a line of racers, from Arab stock. Any other sort of a horse 
that is of pure strain, descended from known ancestors of the same 
strain, should not be called thoroughbred, but pure-bred. 

A stud-book is a book that is kept for the purpose of recording 
the pedigree and performances of pure-bred animals. 

The stud-book for the American thoroughbred horse is kept 



*Those who care to go into this subject will find "The Origin and Influence 
of the Thoroughbred Horse," by William Ridgeway (Cambridge, University 
Press), interesting and exhaustive. 

—9— 



10 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

by the editor of the American Stud-Book, in New York City. To 
entitle a horse to be registered as a thoroughbred in this stud-book, 
his ancestors, for at least six generations of sires and five of dams, 
must have been so registered. 

If, in examining the pedigree of a thoroughbred horse, an an- 
cestor not of pure Arabian blood is found, the horse is' said to have 
cold blood. 

A well-bred horse is one descended from a line of selected sires 
and dams, chosen for the qualities they are known to impart to their 
offspring, and whose rearing has been carefully attended to. 

The horse shown in Figure 1* is an example of what centuries 

of intelligent breeding and the most scientific care can accomplish. 

An ill-bred or under-bred horse is one carelessly bred, whose 

sires and dams have not been well chosen, and for generations have 

been neglected in their rearing. 

Figure 2 shows an under-bred polo-pony of poor quality. This 
is a coarse animal, with abundant mane and tail. While it is a 
perfectly sound, serviceable animal for slow, light work, its sluggish 
nature, the result of careless breeding and rearing, unfits it for 
anything that demands courage or stamina or spirit. 

The varied uses to which horses are put has led breeders to 
develop special strains of horses that will best accomplish the special 
work demanded of them. 

For heavy draft purposes, the French Percheron and English 
Clydesdale are the most distinctive types. The former are usually 
of gray color and the latter bay or brown. These are the familiar 
heavy dray-horses; they weigh from 1,200 to 2,000 pounds, and 
are the most popular heavy work-horses in the United States. 



*This colt was bred by Mr. I. Simons Harrison at his stud-farm in East 
Yorkshire, England, and it is due to his courtesy that the photograph is 
introduced here. 

Mr. Harrison says of him: "This colt is very handsome and racing-like 
and on good lines. I hope he may, with luck, make a name for himself on 
the turf." 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



11 




12 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 3. — The Coach-Horse Type. 

Courtesy of J. Campbell Thompson, Esq. 

The English shire horse is very similar to the Clydesdale, and 
the French draft and Norman horses to the Percheron. The Bel- 
gian and Flemish draft-horses are more ponderous than either of 
the above breeds, and for that reason, probably, have not caught 
the American horse-users' fanc}^ 

The coach-horses are bred for moderate speed, while drawing 
fairly heavy loads. They are over sixteen hands high, and weigh 
from 1,100 to 1,300 pounds. The best-known breeds are the Eng- 
lish coach, the French coach, and the Cleveland bay. The last 
named is a breed developed in the United States. These horses 
are not pure-bred, but are carefully bred from selected individuals. 

The hackney is a breed of driving-horses of English origin very 
popular in the United States. They are stocky, strong, active 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



13 




Figure 4. — A French Percheron Draft-Horse. 

Courtsey of Gerald T. Hanley, Esq. 

horses, full of courage and good temper, smaller than the coach- 
horses, and much less rangy in build. Fashion demands of them 
an exaggerated knee action when in motion and a peculiar stretched- 
out pose when at rest. This exaggerated knee action is well shown 
in Figure 5. 

The hunter is a saddle-horse of good size, with a strong thorough- 
bred cross, good at jumping, and with excellent wind. There is no 
particular breed of hunters. They are simply selected individuals 




Figure 5. — Champion Royal Fashion, a Hackney. 

Courtesy of Gerald T. Hanley, Esq. 




Figure 6. — Lansdowne, Champion Hunter, • % Thoroughbred. 

Courtsey of Gerald T. Hanley, Esq. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



15 



that have proven to be useful in cross-country galloping. It is 
performance that makes a hunter. 

The polo-pony is another type of saddle-horse that depends 
absolutely on his individual per- 
formances to make him of any 
value in his class. Excellent 
polo-ponies are bred from small 
mares of the mustang type by 
Arabian or Spanish barb sires. 
The best ponies are usually eith- 
er thoroughbred, or have a strong 
strain of thoroughbred in their 
pedigrees. 

In the United States there 
have been developed three strains 
of horses that are worthy of spe- 
cial notice on account of the in- 
fluence each has had on the qual- 
ity of the horses of the nation. 
These strains are the American 
standard trotter, the American or 
Kentucky saddle-horse, and the 
Morgan horse. 

The trotter is the result of an effort to produce the best animal 
for racing under harness. The first horse to trot a mile in harness 
in less than three minutes was Yankee, who performed that feat 
at Harlem, N. Y., in 1806. It took a hundred years of the most 
careful breeding to pass the two-minute mark, and breeders are 
still trying to reduce the present record of 1:58J^, made by Lou 
Dillon in 1903. 

The influence of remarkable individuals is singularly shown in 
the breeding of American trotters of record. In 1884 there were 
in the neighborhood of 6,000 horses in the United States that had 




Figure 7. — A Polo-Pony. 

Courtesy of M. W. Smith, Esq. 



16 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 8. — Lansdowne in Action. 

trotted in races that were of enough moment to be recorded. "Of 
these, a little over 1,700 are Hambletonians ; there are 657 other 
Messengers, making a total of 2,369 that trace in male line to 
Messenger. There are 762 Black Hawks, and 453 other Morgans, 
or a total of 1,215 that trace in male line to Justin Morgan. There 
are about 700 that trace in male line to Canadian sires, and the 
same number of Bashaws, with something over 300 which trace to 
throughbred sires other than those mentioned, and about 1,000 
whose tracing is not certain."* 



*From an article in "Spirit of the Times," February 14, 1885. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 17 

In other words, in 1884, seven of every twelve trotting horses 
of record traced back directly to Messenger or Justin Morgan, and 
the same proportion is probably still true. The greatest of Mes- 
senger's descendants was Rysdyk's Hambletonian. He was not a 
thoroughbred. 

The standard American trotter is a horse that has been bred 
for racing under harness. It is of comparatively recent date that 
any care has been taken in registering these horses. Any horse 
that was speedy, or whose sire or dam was a fast trotter, or pacer 
even, was admitted to registry in the stud-book of the National 
Trotting Horse Breeders' Association. This has resulted in the 
greatest confusion in tracing pedigrees, and for several years has 
not been permitted. 

The term " standard-bred " is now applied to trotting horses 
only that are bred to a certain standard of speed. The term does 
not refer to the blood of the horse, but to the excellence of the 
trotting performances of his sire and dam. The rules of the Amer- 
ican Trotting Register Association, in whose records the pedigrees 
of staudard-bred horses are kept, set the following as the trotting 
standard : 

"When an animal meets these requirements and is duly registered, it shall 
be accepted as a standard-bred trotter: 

"1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse and a registered 
standard trotting mare. 

"2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided 
his dam and grandam were sired by registered standard trotting horses, and 
he himself has a trotting record of 2:30 and is the sire of three trotters with 
records of 2:30, from different mares. 

"3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting horse, and whose 
dam and grandam were sired by registered standard trotting horses, provided 
she herself has a trotting record of 2:30, or is the dam of one trotter with a 
record of 2:30. 

"4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided she 
is the dam of two trotters with records of 2 :30. 

"5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided her 
first, second, and third dams are each sired by a registered standard trotting 
horse." 

The effect of this search for speed for racing purposes under 
harness has been to give to the United States a fine breed of light 



18 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

harness-horses. The standard trotter is not a saddle-horse; he is 
too rangy to be a strong weight-carrier, and too long in his stride 
to be a comfortable mount. 

AMERICAN SADDLE-HORSE REGISTER. 

Eligible to Entry. 

Rule 1 . A stallion, mare, or gelding, by registered sire and out of regis- 
tered dam. 

Rule 2. The female progeny of a registered saddle stallion whose first and 
second dams are by a registered saddle stallion, or whose first dam is by a reg- 
istered saddle stallion and whose second dam is registered in the Thoroughbred 
Stud-Book . 

Rule 3. A gelding by a registered saddle stallion out of a mare that 
traces to registered saddle stock. 

Note. — The word Registered, as used above, refers to animals registered 
in the American Saddle-Horse Register. 

Resolved, by the Board of Directors of the American Saddle-Horse Breed- 
ers' Association, that the applicant for registration of an animal under Rule 2 
shall be required to furnish authentic information concerning breeding, and the 
Secretary is instructed to register no animal whose breeding is not clearly 
shown. 

Note. — Go no further in filling blanks than you can substantiate by com- 
petent evidence. 

Note. — Certificate of owner or manager of sire that mare was bred must 
accompany all applications for foals of each year. 

Fees for Entiies. 

Resolved, by the Board of Directors of the American Saddle-Horse Breed- 
ers' Association, that the following changes in fees for registration shall be 
made, to go into effect this date (May 9, 1913), to-wit: 

1. For all foals registered on or before December 31st succeeding the 
date of foal, the fee shall be $2.00 to members and $4.00 to non-members; 
but if not registered by or before December 31st next after being foaled, the 
fee is $5.00 to members and $10.00 to non-members. 

Fee must accompany application. 

False or Fraudulent Registrations. 

If any member of this Association knowingly makes a false or fraudulent 
statement in order to enter an animal in the register, he will be expelled from 
the Association and bis entry expunged. 

If any one not a member knowingly makes a false or fraudulent statement 
in order to enter an animal, his entry will be expunged and he will De debarred 
from making entries in the future. 

Any member who registers a horse as his property when he does not own 
same shall be debarred from registering any horse in the American Saddle- 
Horse Register. 

Foundation. 

The Association, at its annual meeting April 10th, 1908, decided to recog- 
nize Denmark by Imported Hedgeford alone as Foundation. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. ig 

The Association wih endeavor to correct mistakes or omissions, but does 
not become responsive for correctness of pedigrees. 

Address R. H. Lillard, Secretary, 

Louisville, Ky.* 

For a number of centuries in England, whence the larger pro- 
portion of our imported saddle-horses have come, saddle-horses have 
been trained to three gaits only — the walk, trot, and gallop. In 
the early years of the history of Kentucky, although the country 
was prosperous and its people rich, the roads were poor. The busi- 
ness of the State was done on horseback, arid the demand arose for 
a comfortable saddle-horse. To meet this demand a breed of horses, 
row known as the American saddle-horse, was developed. The 
Canadian pacer, a horse descended from French and English stock, 
was crossed with the thoroughbred, and, by careful breeding, the 
present splendid breed of saddle-horses has resulted. 

They are medium-sized, well-built animals, of good color; kind, 
docile, and willing. They jump well and gallop easily and make 
ideal mounts for cavalry, but their chief distinction is the possession 
of a number of artificial gaits that add greatly to the comfort of 
their riders. 

These horses can be used as light driving-horses without injury 
to their gaits. f 

" Though the American Saddle Breeders' Association was not 
organized, and registrations were not begun until 1891, the saddler 
is the product of selected breeding for easy saddle gaits since about 
the time of the Civil War. There are now five volumes of the stud- 
book, containing 15,000 entries. At first registration was based 
largely on performance, horses being required to show five gaits — 
viz., the walk, trot, canter, and rack, or single foot, and in addition 
either the running walk, the fox trot, or the slow pace. The rules 
of registration have been revised with each volume of the stud-book, 



*This registration blank is reproduced in full to show the care taken by 
breeders of these horses to preserve their pedigrees ana to insure careful breeding. 
fThe description of these gaits will be found in Chapter XIX. 





>> 




PQ 




>> 

pq 





pq 




PQ 




>> 

pq 





z 
o 

h 
< 

o 
o 

V) 

< 

(ft o 
DC ■£ 

QP £ 

IaJ— «) 
CflgDC 

°£ § 

■ 5 

u 8 

Q a 
Q 5 
(ft 



> 

PC 


c 





r 


£ 


£ 


O 


C3 


c 


c 


C 


£ 


,£ 


^ 


-3 


L 


L 


u 






1 T 


T3 






4 Cx 


CO 



c 

"o 
O 

a 


b 

c 

2 




a 

- 
c 





ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 









E 
c 

CO o3 

OS Q 

co • -§ 

•2 s 

o « 

13 03 i-; 

| SO 

p § 
2^o 



_ 



22 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

and it is expected that in the near future the 'one rule' will be 
adopted, this being, 'The progeny of a registered sire out of a reg- 
istered dam.' This rule fixes type and is the one that should 
ultimately be adopted for any breed."* 

The term breed, as used by the farmer, signifies a group or 
class of animals having a number cf distinctive qualities and char- 
acteristics in common, and the power to transmit those distinctive 
traits with a good degree of certainty. 

" A breed is usually started by selecting two or mere unusually 
good animals from a group that has been produced in a locality 
by reason of better food, environment, and intelligent selection, and 
which is usually superior to the animals of the same species in other 
localities. These few having been selected, inbreeding is practiced 
to a greater or less extent for the purpose of perpetuating and in- 
tensifying one or more desired characteristics. At first the work is 
usually carried on by one, or at most a few, of the most intelligent 
breeders, who, by improving conditions, have first improved the 
quality of their own stock. 

"It will be readily seen that when the attempt is made to 
launch a breed and establish a record of genealogy, or pedigree, for 
the various animals selected for such record, the first pedigrees must 
be based on unpublished records. Not infrequently some of the 
foundation stock is recorded simply by name, and nothing is said of 
ancestors, because nothing is known of them."f 

From the above definition, the term "breed" can hardly be 
applied to the trotter, because the search has been more for speedy 
individuals than for a class of horses possessing special qualities. J 

*Page 106, "The Rasp," 1914. 

fFrom Chapter IV., "The Horse," Roberts (The Macmillan Company), 
a most excellent and practical book, treating of the horse in his every-day aspect. 

JThe United States Department of Agriculture does recognize the breed. 
It also recognizes the Morgan as a breed. An article on "Breeds of Horses, 
Their Origin and Relationship," by Lieut. R. M. Danford, 5th Field Artillery, 
in the 1914 "Rasp," is recommended to anyone wishing to read a short but 
exhaustive study on this interesting subject. 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 



23 




24 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

Until recently, pedigrees have been very loosely kept. The Ken- 
tucky saddle-horse, although his breeding has been contemporary 
with that of the trotter, forms now a distinct breed, whose indi- 
viduals possess the power of transmitting their distinctive traits 
with reasonable certainty. 

The Morgan family of horses is, in this sense, not a breed. It 
includes the descendants of Justin Morgan, a horse foaled in 1789, 
three-quarters thoroughbred, and of such remarkable virility that 
his descendants to this day still bear unmistakably many of the 
qualities that made their great ancestor famous. 

The rules of admission to the Morgan Horse and Register are 
these : 

"1. Any meritorious stallion, mare, or gelding that traces in direct line 
to Justin Morgan and has at least one-sixty-fourth of his blood; provided the 
sire and dam were bred in approved speed or roadster lines. 

"2. Any meritorious stallion, mare, or gelding having one-thirty-second 
or more of the blood of Justin Morgan; provided the sire and dam were bred in 
approved speed or roadster lines. 

"3. The produce of a sire and dam both registered in the Morgan 
Registry." 

As a business-horse — a horse of all work — the Morgan horse 
stands pre-eminent. No other stallion in the history of Western 
horses possessed the power of perpetuating good qualities to the 
extent possessed by Justin Morgan. The distinguishing character- 
istics of his family are: beauty and symmetry of conformation, 
hardiness, longevity, docility, willingness, and endurance. 

The light harness-horse and the lighter sort of work-horses in 
the United States are, in the main, mongrels. They are so badly 
bred, so crossed with conflicting strains, that little can be predicted 
of the quality of the average foal, based on the qualities of its sire 
and dam.* 

The Arab horse is the aristocrat of the horse world. These 



*This condition has been realized by the better farmers of the country 
for some years, and, due to this fact and to the efforts ot the Bureau of Animal 
Industry of the Department of Agriculture, the quality of the cheaper grades 
of horses is being rapidly improved. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



25 




Figure 12. — Imported Arab Stallion Astraled. 

Courtesy of Colonel Spencer Borden. 



wonderful animals have been kept of pure blood for "a known 
period of 3,500 years"* in the deserts of Arabia. They have fur- 
nished the uplifting, ennobling quality which has been introduced 
in the blood of commoner horses from a period dating back from 
1600 to 2000 B. C. 

Their influence is met with in the mustang of the Western plains 

*Page 41, "The Arab Horse," Spencer Borden (Doubleday, Page & Com- 
pany, New York). 



20 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

and in the small Philippine pony, both degenerate Arabs, descend- 
ing through the Spanish barb. Both are wiry, plucky little animals, 
showing little of the graceful conformation of their great ancestors, 
but much of their courage and endurance. 

GENERAL DEFINITIONS: 

The perfect male of the horse is called a stallion or an entire. 
When altered (castrated), he becomes a gelding. The female is a 
mare. 

The young is called, for either sex, a foal. Specifically, the male 
foal is a colt ; the female a filly. 

A colt or filly becomes of age when the corner incisor teeth 
grow up level with the other incisors of the lower jaw — about five. 
He is aged, under the racing rules, at seven, when he is considered 
thoroughly mature. 

The period of gestation is eleven months. The age of the horse 
is usually reckoned from the first of January preceding birth. For 
purposes of record, a thoroughbred foal becomes a yearling on 
January first after his birth. 

To aid in the recognition of horses, they are described by 
giving their color, sex, age, height, color of mane and tail, points, 
and by detailing their marked peculiarities. In this description 
certain technical terms are used : 

A snip is a patch of white (skin and hairs) on the nose. 

A star is a patch of white hairs in the center of the forehead. 

A blaze is a streak of white hairs running down the face, start- 
ing from the star. 

A horse is bald-faced when the star and snip are connected 
by a broad blaze. 

When the blaze does not run down the axis of the nose, it is 
termed a race. 

White hairs on the legs are almost alwaj^s limited below by 
the hoof. They are described by mentioning their upper limits: 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



27 



white heels, white coronets, white pasterns. When the white color 
extends nearly or quite to the knee or hock, it is termed a white 
stocking (Figure 3). A white foot is, properly, one where the hoof, 
as well as the hairs near it, is white. 

A horse has black points when the mane, tail, and lower legs 
are black. If the mane, tail, and lower legs are the same color 
as the rest of the animal, he is self-colored. A horse is light of the 
sort when he is paler than average for the color. It is usually a 
sign of constitutional debility. 

A mane is roached when it is trimmed close on each side, leav- 
ing a short, thin line of hair in the center about an inch long, running 
the length of the crest (Figure 4). It is hogged when the mane is 
cut closely throughout (Figure 3). 

A tail is banged when it is cut square below the end of the 
dock (Figure 2). It is thinned when it is shortened by pulling 
and breaking, but not squared off (Figure 4). It is docked when 
the dock and hair both are cut off from eight to eleven inches from 
the root of the tail (Figure 3) . 

A brand is a mark burned in the skin of a horse, leaving a scar 
of some definite design to establish ownership. 

Clipping is the process of shortening the hair of the coat by 
means of clippers. 

Singeing is the process of burning long hairs in the coat until 
they are the same length as the rest. 

Wire cuts are the scars of wounds similar to those made by 
barbed-wire fences. They are characteristic in appearance, and 
frequently, by their location, cast suspicion upon the soundness 
of the animal. Usually the wounds causing them were only skin 
deep, when the resulting scars are merely blemishes. 

A rope burn is a scar or wound made by chafing the skin of 
the fetlock by a rope. Like a wire cut, it is usually only a blemish. 

The height of a horse is determined by measuring, in hands 
of four inches each, the altitude of the top of the withers. A full- 



28 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



W^ 






: 



v . . ■ ' . ■ ■■ ::: " ;.;; ' '." i 




IF 



Si 



CO o 
i—l o 



*« o 



.■■■■. ■■ ::.:..- ■/' V 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 29 

grown horse, fourteen hands two inches high (written: 14:2"), or 
less, is a pony. 

Generally speaking, a blemish is any irregularity that mars 
the beauty or symmetry of a horse, while a defect is one that 
reduces his usefulness. 

The forehand of a horse includes that part in front of the 
rider. The part in rear is termed the haunches. 

Of a pair of horses, the near one is the left, the off one is the 
right. The near side of a horse is his left side; the off side, his right. 

A sound horse is one that is not affected with any disabling 
disease or injury; an unsound horse is one that is suffering from 
any malady, acute or chronic, however slight, or that has been 
disabled in any degree by disease or injury. 

An acute disease is one attended by more or less violent symp- 
toms, coming speedily to a crisis, while a chronic disease is one 
that continues a long time, mild as to intensity and slow as to 
progress. An acute disease results in a speedy recovery, or death, 
or it may assume a chronic state. A chronic disease is difficult 
to cure, and yields only to long-continued treatment. 

The Law of Warranty. — When a horse is purchased, the seller 
should furnish a bill of sale, setting forth the description of the 
horse and guaranteeing certain things, as, for example, that he is 
sound; that he is sound and kind; that he is serviceable for certain 
specific work, etc. 

This bill of sale is the new owner's guarantee of title to the 
horse. It also insures him against defects existing prior to the 
date of sale. 

A warranty does not go forward of the date of sale, unless it 
explicitly states so. 

If a person buys a horse that goes lame immediately or soon 
after purchase, he can recover on the guarantee only by showing 
that the horse exhibited the same lameness before the sale. Sim- 
ilarly with a horse warranted kind that runs away or balks after 
sale. Unless the new owner can establish similar viciousness before 
the sale, he can not recover damages from the former owner. 

This arises from the fact that all that can justly be expected 
from the seller is that he state truly in his warrant what the history 
of the horse has been, not what his subsequent history may be. 









H 




UJ 




« 




- 




ffi 





H 


GO 


h-1 

- 


£ 


Q 


CD 


<l 


tt 


rr> 


>! 


| 


PO 


£ 




c 


£3 






Jffi 


J 


rn 


<! 


- 


H 


- 


X 




|z; 


>> 


< -D 


- 


c-l 


<j 


Ol 


« 


>-i 


< 








Q 




W 


>, 


« 


a 



CHAPTER II. 



AGE, AS DETERMINED BY THE TEETH. 

The value of a horse, after he reaches maturity, is proportioned 
to the remaining period of his usefulness. It is, therefore, of im- 
portance to a purchaser to know approximately, and without being 
compelled to rely on the testimony of others, the age of the horse 
he is buying. 

It is very easy for anyone, however little he may be familiar 
with horses, to distinguish the young from the very old animal. 
Signs of wear are apparent in the stiffened action, in blemishes on 
the members, and, more than all, in the elasticity of the skin. Aris- 
totle says: "If, in pinching up the skin from the lips, it is promptly 
retracted, the animal is young; if it remains wrinkled for a long 
time, he is old." 

The horse's teeth appear and grow and change their shape 
according to laws that are fairly regular. These laws are easily 
earned, and are reliable enough to protect any purchaser from fraud 
as to the age of the horse he is buying. 

There are horsemen who claim to judge accurately the age of 
all horses, solely by their teeth. Such a claim, while honestly made 
by many competent horsemen of experience, is often not made good 
in practice. The teeth do furnish an excellent suggestion as to the 
age of the horse — good enough to protect the careful observer from 
imposition — that is all that should be claimed for them by the 
amateur horseman. 

Up to five years the teeth give very reliable information; from 
five to nine this information is good; after nine the limits of error 
increase rapidly, and little reliance can be placed on the teeth as 
a sole means of judging age. 

The back teeth, molars, are six in number on each side of each 



32 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




jaw; those in the lower jaw are shown 
in Figure 14. 

In addition to these twenty-four 
molars, another molar sometimes ap- 
pears in front of the others, more often 
in the upper jaw than the lower, and 
rarely in both jaws. These molars are 
rudimentary and usually temporary, 
appearing before the colt is a year old 
and usually disappearing before he is 
three. They sometimes remain indef- 
initely. These teeth are usually called 
wolf's teeth, but are sometimes called 
blind teeth, from a fancied influence 
on the horse's sight. 

The molars are difficult to examine 
on account of their location, and their 
usefulness as evidence as to age ceases 
at five, when all the temporary ones 
have been replaced by permanent teeth, 
whose aspect changes slowly. 

The changes in the other teeth are 
quite regular up to that age. For this 
reason, inspection of the molars to de- 
termine age is rarely resorted to. 
The inspection of the incisors, the twelve teeth in the anterior 
portion of the horse's jaw, is the usual means employed to approx- 
imate the age of horses. In inspecting them, the following details 
are examined: 

First : Whether they are temporary or permanent. 
The common names for the incisors, naming them each way from 
the middle of the jaw, are center, intermediate, and corner.- 

When the foal is born none of the incisors have appeared. About 




Figure 14. — The Lower Jaw- 
bone in Plan, Showing Teeth. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 33 

a week later the two center teeth are through the gums. In a 
month the intermediates appear, and after eight or nine months 
more, the corner teeth. These teeth are small, thin, and white, 
and of little interest as a means of determining age to the ordinary 
observer. Up to this time the colt's very appearance marks his 
infancy — he is leggy, small in the body and neck, his mane and tail 
are woolly and characteristic in appearance. 

For the next year and a half, to the casual observer, these teeth 
change but little; their grinding surfaces wear away, but they re- 
tain much the same appearance they had at one year. Because 
these teeth appear while the colt is still being nourished by his 
mother, they are called milk-teeth. 

Between two and a half and three years, the center milk-teeth 
have fallen out and permanent ones have taken their place. 

When the horse approaches a given age — -three, for instance — 
he is said to be rising three ; after he has passed it, he is three off 
until he is three and a half; after that period, he is rising four. 

The age of the colt at three is easily determined when we find 
the center incisors permanent and the rest temporary. 

At four the intermediate temporary teeth have been shed and 
replaced by permanent ones, and at five the temporary teeth are 
all gone. 

Figure 15 shows very plainly the difference in appearance be- 
tween the temporary (corner) and the permanent (intermediate) 
teeth . 

Simply by opening the colt's lips the observer can tell his age 
near enough for all ordinary purposes. As a rule, a horse less than 
five is not mature enough to be put to hard work; his development 
is not complete, and what would be quite suitable employment for 
a mature horse would probably prevent the full development of a 
colt and by so much destroy his future usefulness. 

Sometimes the temporary teeth are pulled to make the colt 
appear older, and occasionally the corner teeth and intermediate, 




Figure 15. — Temporary (Corner) and Permanent (Intermediate and 
Center) Teeth — Four Years Old. 




Figure 16. — Showing Angle of Meeting of Upper and Lower 
Teeth in a Horse Twenty Years Old. 




Figure 17. — A Parrot Mouth. 




Figure 18. — An Undershot Jaw. 



36 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

especially in the upper jaw, are shed at nearly the same time — 
about four. However, this is not the rale. 

Second: The angle at which the teeth of the two jaws meet. 

The younger the horse, the more nearly the angle made by the 
prolongation of the front faces approaches 180 degrees. This angle 
becomes more and more acute as the horse grows older. Compare 
the angle made by the outer faces of the upper and lower teeth in 
Figures 15 and 16. 

Third : Whether or not they meet accurately. 

If the teeth do not meet accurately, the tables of the teeth do 
not wear as uniformly as in the normal case and their appearance 
is not a good index of the horse's age. 

If the upper jaw is longer than the lower one, the upper teeth 
will, when the mouth closes, project beyond the lower ones. This 
malformation is termed parrot mouth. The contrary case, much 
more rare, is termed undershot. The cuts on the opposite page 
illustrate each case. It is very difficult to approximate the proper 
age of horses possessing either of these malformations, since the 
teeth, not meeting, do not wear away according to the general rule. 

The horse whose mouth is shown in Figure 18 has the habit 
of biting at the woodwork of his stall, the picket-rope — anything 
within his reach. This habit is known as cribbing, and is the cause 
of the wearing away of the upper teeth. This animal was known to 
be between eighteen and twenty when this picture was taken. 

Fourth: The appearance of their outer faces. 

The teeth of a young animal show smoother surfaces (are less 
stained and chipped on the edges) than the same teeth in older 
horses. Young teeth are whiter than old ones, and have not such 
pronounced deposits of tartar on the margins of the gums. Compare 
Figures 19 and 20. 

Fifth : The shape of the corner teeth. 

The tables of the teeth are the surfaces that meet when the jaws 
close. When the permanent corner teeth come up, at five, the pro- 




Figure 20. — Front View at Twelve 



38 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

files of their tables are right lines. The upper tooth does not, 
usually, meet the lower tooth exactly, but projects slightly to the 
rear. As the teeth wear off by grinding against each other, the for- 
ward part of the upper corner tooth wears away faster than the 
rear part, and a hook appears. This hook-like appearance is char- 
acteristic of horses seven and older, if the two corner teeth 
do not meet throughout. If they do, the teeth will wear evenly, 
and the profile will remain a right line. The hook is almost never 
present at five, is slight at six, and quite pronounced at seven. 
Compare Figures 21, 22, and 23. 




Figure 21. — Side View at Six. 




Figure 22. — Side View at Seven. 




Figure 23. — The Hook at Nine. 



40 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 24. — Longitudinal Seg 
tion of Center Incisor. 

Drawn by Major C. B. Hagadorn 
23d U. S. Infantry. 



Sixth: The direction and length 
of the teeth. 

As seen in the cut, Figure 24, the 
tooth in its original shape curves 
more rapidly towards its outer end. 
The shape of the remaining portion 
of the tooth is not altered as the 
tooth wears off and is pushed for- 
ward. The height of the molars 
remains fairly constant, and thus 
the distance between the jaw-bones 
at the outer end also remains con- 
stant. 

As the exposed ends of the teeth 
lose their curvature and the straight- 
er portion of the original tooth comes 
into view with advancing years, 
they meet farther and farther to 
the front, and the visible portion 
of the tooth becomes longer. Con- 
trast Figures 15 and 16. At the 
same time the teeth become nar- 
rower in diameter, and so appear 
more closely bunched in the older 
animals. Contrast Figures 22 and 
27. The plumpness of the gums is 
less in old horses than in young 
ones. Contrast Figures 15 and 16. 

Seventh: The mark, the dental 
star, and the shape of the tables. 

All the details above enumerated 
are preliminary to the examination 
of the tables of the teeth and con- 
firmatory of what is to be learned 
from them. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



41 



The structure of the incisors is the same for all: A central 
cavity, the pulp cavity, containing the nerves,, blood-vessels, and 
secreting tissues, is contained in the axis of the tooth. Surrounding 
this pulp cavity is dentine, a dense and ivory-like substance, form- 
ing the body of the tooth. This dentine in the perfect tooth has a 
deep hollow in its outer end. Over the surface of the tooth and 
lining the depression in its outer end is enamel, white, very hard, 
and of varying thickness. The depression in the tooth soon be- 

comes discol- 
"V ~"^^W ored from the 

debris of de- 
com posing 
food lodging 
there. The 
enamel that 
crowned the 
tooth at its 
appearance 
soon wears 
off, but the 
enamel on the 
outside of the 
tooth and 
that lining its central depression still shows in cross-section on the 
table of the tooth. The blackened spot in the center of the tooth, 
with its surrounding ring of white enamel, is called the mark, and 
is present in every permanent incisor for about three years after 
its appearance. By this time, in the ordinary case, the grinding 
of the teeth against each other has worn off that part of the tooth 
containing the depression, but for another year or so the discolor- 
ation of the body of the tooth, due to the chemical action of the 
contents of the depression, is still more or less visible. 

As the tooth wears down and threatens to expose the pulp 




Figure 25. — Cross-Section of Center Incisor. 
Drawn by Major C. B. Hagadorn, 23d IT. S. Infantry. 



42 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

cavity, its secreting tissues deposit dentine to fill up the cavity 
near the end of the tooth, to protect the nerves and blood-vessels 
from injury. The dentine so formed is yellower in color than the 
original dentine of the tooth, and as the tooth gets more and more 
worn down, assumes somewhat the form of a star, hence its name, 
dental star. At first this new dentine appears as a yellowish line 
in front of the enamel of the mark. This is because the pulp cavity 
is spread out quite thin near the end of the perfect tooth. It nar- 
rows and broadens deeper in the tooth until its final shape is circu- 
lar. The circular shape is not found until the horse is about twelve, 
although this rule is extremely elastic. 

At three or four, the observer can be sure enough of the horse's 
age without looking at the tables, but after that they should be 
consulted. 

At five, the horse's mouth presents quite positive evidence of 
his age. Looking at the outer faces of the teeth, they appear smooth 
and clean. The edges are sharp; there is no hook in the upper 
corner teeth; the gums are plump; the horizontal and vertical axes 
of the teeth are not far from equal. Looking at the tables, the 
mark is found to be clear in all the teeth; the center and inter- 
mediate teeth show tables nearly rectangular in shape, and the axis 
of the tables at right angles to the jawbone is nearly twice as long 
as the other one. But it is in the corner tooth that the surest 
evidence is found. As the other incisors appear, at three and four, 
the mark is entirely surrounded with enamel, but the corner tooth 
comes up as a shell, with the inner wall missing, and not until the 
tooth has been in use for from six to nine months is the outer por- 
tion of the wall worn down to the level of the inner portion. This 
peculiarity of the corner tooth at five, once seen, should never be 
mistaken. 

At six, the hollow of the mark has been worn off the tables 
of the center teeth, but the enamel is still there; it is discolored, 
and sometimes appears not very different from the marks in the 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



43 



other teeth — a little less dark and its margin less pronounced. The 
mark is plainly present in the intermediates and corners, and the 
wall of the corner tooth is up all around. The tables of the teeth 
at six usually lose something of the rectangular shape, becoming 
more rounded on the longer sides. 

Looking at the exterior faces of the teeth, the hook is begin- 
ning to appear and the teeth are losing their fresh, clean appearance. 




Figure 26. — The Tables at Five. 

There is nothing positive to go by in the six-year-old mouth, except 
the presence of the mark in the intermediates and * corner teeth, 
and even this is sometimes misleading. 

At seven, the yellowish line of the dentine that has filled up 
the pulp cavity shows quite plainly in the center teeth and may 
show in the intermediates. The mark is gone from the center teeth 












Figure 27.— The Tables at Six, 




\ 



£+' 



Figure 28. — The Tables at Seven. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



45 




Figure 29. — -The Tables at Eight. 



and faint in the intermediates; it shows quite plainly in the corners. 
The tables are much more rounded in outline. The exterior aspect 
of the teeth is quite changed; they are much longer and their angle 
of meeting is more acute. The hook is now plainly visible, except 
in those mouths where the posterior corners of the corner teeth 
meet exactly, and it is the presence of this hook, together with the 
presence of the mark in the corner teeth, that makes the seven-year- 
old mouth fairly easy to interpret. 

Dishonest dealers sometimes rasp off the hook to make the 
horse appear younger than he is. 

The central enamel is still present in all the teeth, although 
the discolored portion is usually worn off in the center teeth. 

At eight, the mark is gone from all the teeth, although the 
corners are still discolored and the central enamel is found in all 



46 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 30.— The Tables at Nine. 

of them. The line of the dental star is better defined in the center 
teeth. The tables are more rounded than before and the line join- 
ing their centers is a flatter curve than in the younger mouths. A 
comparison of Figures 26, 27, 28, and 29 will show the gradual 
flattening of this curve. 

Viewed from the side, the angle of meeting of the teeth has 
grown much more acute than at seven. 

The principal test to be used in distinguishing between an eight- 
and a nine-year-old mouth is to see whether the central enamel is 
gone from the center teeth. If it is still present, the horse is prob- 
ably eight; if it is worn off, he is probably at least nine. Just as 
the presence of the temporary teeth shows the colt-age, so the 
absence of the central enamel shows that the horse is more than 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 47 

eight — that he is "past telling" w,ith any degree of certainty. It 
is much more difficult, even with this central enamel as a test, to 
distinguish between the eight- and the nine-year-old horse than it 
is to tell a four-year-old from a five-year-old. 

In fact, it must be impressed upon all that there is no inviolate 
rule for the growth and wear of the teeth. Differences in the dens- 
ity of the dentine, differences in food and method of feeding, or 
bad stable habits, will cause teeth to vary widely in appearance in 
horses of the same age. 

At nine the tables of the center teeth are quite rounded, the 
dental star is much more rounded in them than before. 

From nine on the indications of the horse's age become increas- 
ingly less reliable. Mayhew says: "The greater the number of 
years, the more difficult it is to arrive at the exact determination 
of the age. After the twelfth year there is but little probability 
of judging it correctly; after the sixteenth, all is confusion, for 
there are no positive signs that will enable us to give a definite 
opinion upon this point, and it is better now to be cautious, or 
remain silent."* 

The amateur had better go farther than that and refrain from 
any positive judgment after nine. 

When the dental star becomes round and the tables triangular, 
the horse is probably twelve or more; and when the necks of the 
teeth become small and widely separated, he is approaching very 
near to the end of his period of usefulness. 

In judging horses for age it is best to proceed leisurely. Open 
the horse's lips, and view first the faces from the side. Look for 
temporary teeth; see if the teeth meet evenly; see if the upper 
corner tooth has a hook; observe the plumpness of the gums; the 
edges of the teeth, to see if they are chipped; their margins near 
the gums, for tartar. Look next at the front faces of the teeth, 
and compare the relative lengths of the axes of the center teeth, 



*"The Horse's Mouth," Edw. Mayhew, 3d edition, p. 104. 



48 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 31. — The Tables at Twenty. 



remembering that the greater the disparity in these lengths, the 
older the horse. Next, open the horse's mouth, and look at the 
tables. The first thing to notice is the table of the corner teeth, 
to see if the wall has grown up on the inside; look for the mark, 
the shape of the tables, the dental star, the curvature of the line 
joining the centers of the tables, and the slope of the inner faces 
of the teeth. If the mark is gone from all the lower teeth, look 
for it in the upper. The horse that has the mark in all his upper 
teeth is probably not very old — perhaps between nine and thirteen, 
probably not more than the latter. Beware of triangular tables; 
they are never found in the young horse — always in the old. 

Having applied all these tests, reconcile all discrepancies as 
nearly as may be and make the estimate modestly, remembering 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



49 




Figure 32. — An Abnormal Mouth— Mark Clearly Visible in All the 

Teeth at Twelve. 



that to be cock-sure in an estimate of a horse's age from the evidence 
of his teeth alone, is a sign of ignorance. 

Figures 20 and 32 show the front view and the view of the 
tables of a horse known to be twelve at the time the photograph 
was taken. He was a restless horse, who objected to a scrutiny 
of his mouth, and the first hasty glance at the tables showed all 
the marks present and the wall of the corner teeth fully grown up. 
An observer, satisfied with that evidence alone, might say at once, 
"Six years old"; but a more careful look at the shape of the tables 
would render that estimate very doubtful, while a single glance at 
the stained and chipped exterior, covered with tartar, the long ver- 
tical axis of the center teeth and their slope, would confirm the error. 

A horse's teeth are said to be bishoped when a hole in imi- 
tation of the mark is burned in his teeth. As the false mark can 



50 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



not be surrounded by the enamel of the genuine one, and as the 
other tests for confirming the evidence of the mark will necessa- 
rily fail, the deception is easy of detection. It is a trick rarely re- 
sorted to. 

The tushes, or canine teeth, usually appear at about four, are 
usually perfect at five, and show greater or less signs of wear 
after that. 

They usually are absent in mares. This fact, and the uncer- 
tainty of the time of their appearance and their rate of growth, 
makes them almost useless as an aid to the determination of age. 
A bright, clean tush, showing little signs of wear, is a good index 
to a young horse; while a flat-topped, chipped, and yellow tush is 
a usual accompaniment to age. It is not wise to place much more 
reliance upon them. 



CHAPTER III. 



INFLAMMATION.* 

In all the higher animals the tissues (bones, muscles, capsules, 
ligaments, tendons, glands, etc. — in brief, all parts of the body) 
are nourished and kept alive by the circulation of the blood. Blood 
consists of a pale-yellow fluid, carrying in it myriads of white and 
red semi-solid bodies called corpuscles. 

The red corpuscles, under conditions of health, very largely 
outnumber the white ones. They are without volition and float 
along, charged with oxygen to support life in the cells composing 
the tissues. 

The white corpuscles have a volition of their own; they act 
as the scavengers of the tissues. They have the power of absorbing 
and of digesting other micro-organisms, and thus protect the body 
from disease germs. 

Blood, leaving the heart through the aorta, is carried by the 
arteries, branching and rebranching, to arterioles, which terminate 
in capillaries. The arteries and arterioles have impervious walls, 
but the capillaries, subdividing into a veritable lace-work, so as to 
reach the neighborhood of every element, have cellular walls, which 
permit the passage through them of the fluid and solid parts of the 
blood. In the capillaries the flow of blood is uniform, when in a 
state of health, towards the veinlets — the termination of the veins 
that carry the blood back to the heart. 

Figure 33 shows, highly magnified, a healthy, living membrane 



*This subject is introduced at this point because it is an absolute neces- 
sity to understand, in a way, what inflammation is, what produces it, and how 
to reduce it, in order to properly understand what follows. 

This chapter is adapted from the discussions of the subject, pp. 487-493, 
in the chapter on General Diseases in the work of the Bureau of Animal Industry 
on the "Diseases of the Horse." The cuts are copied from cuts in that work. 
This is a book that should be in the hands of every horse-owner. 



52 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




of a frog. The broad band, aa, on the left of the cut, is a veinlet; 
c is a capillary. The lighter-colored disks in the vessels and in the 

connecting tis- 
sues are white 
corpuscles; the 
darker ones are 
red corpuscles. 

Ordinarily, the 
red corpuscles 
float in the cen- 
ter of the cur- 
rent, while the 
white ones, due 
to a certain voli- 
tion of their own, 
float along near 
the walls of the 
capillaries. The 
nutrition, re- 
ceived into the blood from the digestive apparatus, as will be shown 
later on, replaces worn-out tissues. The oxygen of the red corpus- 
cles is consumed in maintaining the heat of the body, and the 
blood [flows on, taking with it the dead cells of worn-out tissues, 
the red corpuscles, with their burden of absorbed germs, through 
the veins in a steady stream to the heart. From there it is pumped 
into the lungs, blue in color and exhausted of vitality, to be vital- 
ized with oxygen and relieved of its waste matter. From the lungs 
it goes back to the heart again, purified and enriched, to repeat its 
function. As the result of repeated experiments, it has been esti- 
mated that it takes, in the horse, thirty-one seconds for the blood 
to complete this round of circulation. 

If the flow of the blood in the capillaries, for any reason, is 
impeded, the white corpuscles pass through the walls of those ves- 
sels and accumulate in the neighboring tissues. These corpuscles 



Figure 33.- 



-Highly Magnified Living Membrane of 
a Frog, Non-inflamed. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



53 




rA'^ so on. 



Figure 34. 



possess the pow- 
er of multiplying 
indefiDitely, and 
with great rapid- 
ity; the nucleus 
of one corpuscle 
divides into two, 
and each of these 
into others, and 
The cells 
that largely com- 
pose the tissues 
possess, in a 
greater or less 
degree, this same 

-Highly Magnified Living Membrane of property, and it 
a Frog, Inflamed. . g ^ accumu _ 

lation of these minute organisms that accounts for the swelling that 
accompanies inflammation. 

In Figure 34 is shown, magnified to the same power as in the 
preceding cut, a similar living membrane, but inflamed. The mul- 
tiplication of the corpuscles is clearly shown, and also the migration 
of the white corpuscles.* 

To. illustrate the phenomenon of inflammation, press the blunt 
end of a pencil into the palm of one hand, holding it there while 
you are reading this page. 

Inflammation itself may be described as the perverted nourish- 
ment of any part. An injury, the presence of a foreign body, or 
some abnormal quality of the blood itself chokes the flow of blood 

*Let it be understood that this discussion is the merest outline of the 
wonderful processes of nourishment and destruction of living tissues; that it 
is very, very inadequate. The term " corpuscle" is wrongly used to describe 
all the bodies carried in the fluid of the blood, and "cell" to indicate the atoms 
of which tissues are built. "Germ" is used to vaguely designate those living 
micro-organisms that laymen should be willing to dismiss with the knowledge 
that one must be very wise to understand them. 



54 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



through the capillaries and the veins. The heart keeps pumping 
blood into the affected region, and there is no corresponding drain. 
This excess of blood is forced through the walls of the capillaries, 
the tissues become overcharged with it, and the cells and white 
corpuscles, over-stimulated, begin to multiply. Crowding together, 
by their own numbers they soon deprive each other of the necessary 
nourishment, and they die. Other germs, less beneficent than the 
cells and white corpuscles, if present in the tissues, or if introduced 
by the cause of the inflammation, take this occasion to multiply, 
to destroy other cells, and to die themselves in turn. These dead 
cells, corpuscles, and germs, suspended in the fluid of the blood, 
form the whitish, malodorous substance known as pus. 

Figure 35 shows a section of the uninflamed wing of a bat, 
much less highly magnified than in the preceding cuts. The en- 
largement is not enough to show the capillaries connecting the 
arteries and veins. The same spot in the membrane was then 
woundeel with a needle, inflammation set in, and Figure 36 shows, 
under the same microscope, the enlargement of the capillaries, due 

to the increased flow of 
blood, and the accumula- 
tion of the corpuscles. 

Often there is an un- 
natural accumulation of 
blood in any part, caused 
either by an increased flow 
of blood to the part or by 
an obstruction that pre- 
vents the free exit of the 
blood through the veins 
from the tissue affected. 
This is called congestion of 

the part. In either case 

Figure 35.-Highly Magnified Section there ig an increased sup _ 

of Wing of a Bat, Not Inflamed. , e , T , , 

ply oi blood, and, as a 




ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



55 



result, increased combustion (oxidation), manifested by heat, and 

augmented nutrition, manifested by swelling. 

Now take the pencil away 
from your palm. At first the 
place where it has been held 
appears white. That is be- 
cause the pressure has 
squeezed the capillaries dry 
of blood. If you had pressed 
hard enough, you were con- 
scious of pain. That was the 
call for help of the nerves of 
the compressed spot. 

Now the spot is red, red- 
der than the surrounding tis- 
sues. That is caused by the 
rush of blood, responding to 
the call of the nerves; and 




Figure 36. — Highly Magnified Section 
of Wing of a Bat, Inflamed. 



now the spot is swollen a little — very little if the pressure of the pen- 
cil was slight, quite noticeably if it was pressed hard into the flesh. 
The spot is warmer than the surrounding flesh. This swelling is 
caused by the multiplication of the corpuscles; the heat by the oxi- 
dation of the bruised cells, preparatory to their removal when the 
circulation is restored. 

If you had continued the pressure long enough, the compressed 
tissue would have died, as described above, and an infected sore 
would have resulted. This is precisely what happens when a horse's 
back is made sore by careless saddling or improper riding. 

Pus may be confined by limiting membranes provided by Na- 
ture to prevent the migration of the pus to sound tissues. Such a 
sore is termed an abscess. If the pus escapes externally from an 
abscess and the channel of escape is similarly lined by a limiting 
membrane, the channel is termed a sinus. 

Pus forming without such a limiting membrane invades the 



56 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

surrounding tissues and destroys them. Such a sore, when open, 
is called an ulcer. 

Any injury or wound in which pus forms is said to suppurate 
or to be infected. If the pus is absorbed into the circulation while 
the injurious germs are still active, abscesses are sometimes set up 
in. organs distant from the original injury; at other times the in- 
fection attacks the corpuscles of the blood itself, destroying them. 
In either case blood-poisoning is said to have set in. 

Sometimes the affected part dies. This is said to be mortifica- 
tion or gangrene in soft tissues, and necrosis in bone. 

The local signs of inflammation are redness of varying degree, 
pain, swelling (except in bone), and heat. The general symptoms 
are fever and loss of condition. In aggravated cases the vital or- 
gans gradually suspend their function, and death from exhaustion 
results. 

The treatment of inflammation is the same in principle what- 
ever be the part inflamed. Inflammation is hypernutrition, at- 
tended by excessive blood-supply. Any agent which will reduce 
the blood-supply and prevent the excessive nutrition of the elements 
of the part will serve as a remedy. The means employed may be 
used locally to the parts, or they may be constitutional remedies, 
which act indirectly. 

In the treatment of sick horses, as in the treatment of ailing 
human beings, the administration of drugs should be sparingly re- 
sorted to by amateurs. Proper feeding and watering, cleanliness 
and sanitation in stables, and careful nursing, will keep veterinary 
bills down. 

Indiscriminate use of drugs is seldom beneficial or economical. 

In all cases of inflammation, seek first to remove the exciting 
cause. This may be some foreign substance, which irritates the 
animal directly, or it may be some decomposing substance, full of 
disease germs, in the stable. 

Rest is the next requisite. Motion induces an increased flow 
of blood, and blood supplies the food for inflammation. The pa- 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 57 

tient should be in a darkened stall, free from noise or anything 
that will excite him. 

Cold and hot applications reach the same end b}^ opposite 
means. Cold applications — ice-bags, cold bandages, fomentations, 
etc. — contract the blood-vessels and soothe the nerves, while warm 
applications, either wet or dry, increase the circulation by expand- 
ing the blood-vessels, and so put an end to the congestion existing 
in the inflamed part. 

In cases of chronic inflammation, the surrounding tissues may 
have been left so weakened by it that they do not perform their 
functions properly. Then they need stimulating to allow them to 
recover strength, by the application of liniments containing mild 
stimulants, or by massage. If this does not bring about satisfactory 
results, a veterinarian should be consulted. Blood-letting, the use 
of severe counter-irritants — blistering or firing — or the use of strong 
tonics or stimulants, should not be attempted by amateurs. 

In all cases of inflammation it is of the greatest importance to 
limit the diet to small quantities of easily digested foods, freshly 
prepared and frequently offered. Food should not be permitted to 
remain before the patient long. If refused or only partly eaten, 
remove it, clean the manger thoroughly, and offer a fresh supply 
in a couple of hours. No invalid is more capricious about his food 
than a sick horse. 

When the tissues have been destroyed by inflammation, they 
are replaced by the formation of new tissues, different from the old 
in appearance and structure. This new tissue is called a scar. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE HEAD AND NECK. 

The relation of the bones to the soft tissues of the head and 
neck is shown in Figure 38. 

The face is that part of the head seen from directly in front, 
between the nostrils and the forelock. 

The forehead includes that part of the face between the fore- 
lock and a line drawn between the inner corners of the eyes. 

The temples are the regions at 
the sides of the forehead, between 
the eye and the ear. 

The nose is that part of the 
face below the forehead and above 
the nostrils. 

The cheeks are the two sides 
of the head, to right and left of 
the face. 

The muzzle includes the nos- 
trils and lips. 

The brain of a horse is very 
small, about the size of a polo 
ball. To destroy a horse by 
shooting, aim at the intersection 
of two imaginary lines drawn 
from each eye to the diagonally 
opposite ear. If the revolver is 

held at right angles to the plane 
Figure 38,-Skeleton of Forehand. Qf ^ ^ & ^ thug ^^ 

will instantly and painlessly destroy the animal. 

In the well-bred horse the head should be of medium size, lean, 
wide between the eyes, finely chiselled, and terminating wide at 
the nostrils. It should be wide from the eye to the angle of the 




ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 



59 



jaw; wide under the jaw, wide at the base of the skull (where the 
head and neck join). The nose should be straight; the nostrils 
large, wide, and without many hairs. The fleshy borders of the 
nostrils should be thin, firm, and sensitive. 





Figure 39. — Head of a Well- 
Bred Horse, Front Face. 



Figure 40. — Head of a Well- 
Bred Horse, Profile. 



The ears should be small, fine, and nervously alert. In chang- 
ing position from front to rear, they should describe small circles. 
They should not droop to right and left. 

Horses possess very acute sense of hearing, and the ears, large 
and funnel-shaped, locate the direction of the origin of noises by 
rotating until the maximum sound is received. "As flight (running 
away) is the horse's chief natural means of self -protection, he has 
great ability in turning his ears to the rear without altering the 
forward position of his head. In a pitched battle with carnivorous 
enemies, wild horses employ their eyes and ears, as a rule, in a back- 
ward direction, while using their hind feet as weapons of assault; 
and even when making a forward rush at an enemy, they almost 



60 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



always 'put back' their ears. The fact of a horse looking back- 
wards is at once made manifest by his showing 'the whites of his 
eyes.' These actions of eyes and ears are so closely connected in 
the horse with fear and anger that he often performs them without 
any direct incentive when influenced by these feelings. Hence, all 
experienced horsemen regard an unprovoked putting back of the 
horse's ears and showing of the whites of his eyes as a reliable 
warning to 'look out.'" 

It is to be remarked that the signs of warning above mentioned 
are usually accompanied by a contracting and flattening of the 
nostrils. 




Figure 41. — The Ill-Bred Horse, 
Full Face. 



Figure 42. — The Ill-Bred Horse, 
Profile. 



The ill-bred horse shows a heavy head, narrow brain-space, 
contracted jaws, coarse throat-latch, and loosely hung, insensitive 
ears. His muzzle is set thickly with coarse hairs, has small nostrils, 
and too much flesh in the lips and margins of the nostrils. Nothing 
is clear-cut about his head. His general appearance, when in re- 
pose, is sleepy and lymphatic; when in action, sulky and unwilling. 

The eyes should be full, clear and bright, and symmetrically 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



61 




Figure 43. 



-The Eye, in Cross- 
Section. 



placed. They should' not be watery; the pupils should be black 
' and of equal size. The lids should be thin and firm. The eye, to 
inspire full confidence in the horse, should be large, prominent — to 
secure a large field of vision — and kindly in expression. 

The eye is a sphere, containing 
two chambers (Figure 43) : one, 
the anterior, is filled with aque- 
ous humor; the other, many 
times larger, with vitreous hu- 
mor. The lining of the posterior 
chamber of the retina, the devel- 
opment of the optic nerve. Be- 
tween the two chambers is placed 
the crystalline lens. In front of 
the anterior chamber is the cor- 
nea. The cornea, crystalline 
lens, and the two humors, are perfectly transparent in the healthy 
eye. The crystalline lens is screened by the iris, a sensitive mem- 
brane that is pierced at its center by the pupil. The iris is capable 
of expanding and contracting, and so can regulate the supply of 
light admitted to the retina through the pupil. 

Looking closely into the sound eye, a fringe of sooty, spongy 
aspect will be seen, attached to the edge of the iris, heavier above 
than below. It is called the corpora nigra, and is a provision of 
Nature to partially absorb the light entering the eye and to supply 
the protection given to the human eye by the overhanging eyebrow. 
The pupils should dilate and contract equally and freely. The 
iris should be of uniform color. Frequently there is lack of color 
in the iris. The visible effects of this condition is the whitish ring 
surrounding the pupil, known as wall-eye. 

An opacity of the cornea is a positive defect that limits the 
field of vision of the horse. Such a horse is usually a shyer, nervous 
and undesirable for any sort of fast work. 

The wall-eyed horse must not be confused with the horse that 



62 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

"shows the white of his eye," already discussed. In the ordinary 
case the white does not show, but an excitable, nervous horse, suf- 
fering from timidity or fear, will open his eyes unduly wide and so 
show the whites of them. It is a sign of nervousness or vice, or 
both, and, while often merely the result of brutal treatment, is al- 
ways an undesirable quality. 

As a protection to the eye, to remove foreign particles that 
adhere to its outer surface, Nature provides the haw, a thin mem- 
brane that, in a restful state, appears as a thin fold at the inner 
angle of the eye. When the eye is irritated by dust, hail, chaff, 
or the like, the ball is slightly withdrawn into the socket and the 
haw is stretched across the eye, removing mechanically the irritant, 
assisted by a profuse flow of tears. 

Blindness is common among horses. If it results from an in- 
jury to the external eye or from cataract, it is easy of discovery; if 
from disease in, or destruction of, the optic nerve, it is not so 
apparent. 

A cataract shows itself as a milky opacity in the interior of the 
eye. Its seat is in the crystalline lens or its coverings. What is 
known as the candle test is the surest method of determining whether 
an opacity in the eye is or is not a cataract. In a partially lighted 
place a lighted candle is held in front of the eye. If the eye is per- 
fect, three images will be seen — one, the front one, erect, is the 
reflection from the outer surface of the cornea; the second, also 
erect, is the reflection from the front surface of the crystalline lens; 
the third, inverted, is the reflection from the back of the lens. As 
the candle is raised or lowered, the first and second images go up 
or down, the third moves in a contrary direction. If a cataract is 
present, the inverted image is blurred, or wanting altogether; if the 
trouble is in front of the lens, there will be but one distinct image. 

A good preliminary test for blindness is to raise the hand from 
below to the level of the eye and near it, then to withdraw it, but 
not so rapidly as to cause appreciable air-currents. If the horse 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 53 

does not wink or dodge, there is grave suspicion cast at once on his 
vision in that eye. 

In order to give lightness to the head, and at the same time to 
afford room for the attachment of the various muscles of mastica- 
tion, some of the bones of the horse's face are hollowed out, leaving 
blind cavities, opening only downward. These cavities are called the 
facial sinuses, and seem to have no function, except that mentioned. 

The neck includes seven of the vertebrae of the spinal column. 
The muscle that moves the foreleg forward is attached to the head 
and the first four of the neck vertebrae; the longer this muscle is, 
the greater will be its contractibility and consequent leverage on 
the bones of the foreleg and the stronger will be the action of the 
limb. In saddle-horses, nothing is to be gained by increasing the 
weight of the neck muscles beyond that necessary to give a sure 
and graceful carriage to the head and a quick and free forward 
swing to the front leg. The neck should, therefore, be long and 
slender, without too marked a crest. (Figure 1.) The neck, at 
its upper end, should be spare and flexible. This condition, together 
with width between the jaw-bones, is necessary in saddle-horses ; 
without it, they are stiff and unhandy. 

The horse shown in Figure 44 is an example of an otherwise 
good horse, spoiled by too much flesh in the neck. He has the 
neck of a stallion, and the inference is that he was gelded com- 
paratively late in life. Castration is usually performed when the 
colt is about one year old. If the operation is done, as is sometimes 
the case, when the colt is very young, he is apt to be underdeveloped 
in the forehand when he is matured. If the time of castration is 
postponed until two, three, or later, the development of the fore- 
hand will more and more resemble that of a stallion. The operation 
is more easily and more safely performed on a young than on a 
mature animal. 

The excess of flesh on the crest of the horse in Figure 44 — 
thirty pounds or so — makes it impossible for him to handle his 
head and neck easily, and he is hard to turn or stop quickly in 



64 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

consequence. He is not a good drill-horse, although he has very 
comfortable gaits and is kind and willing. 

The horse shown in Figure 45 is a saddle-horse "de luxe." 
His neck is thick at the base, but it is light at the crest and tapers 
nicely. He should be able to control it easily. 

A ewe-necked horse is one whose crest is concave. 
The nasal membranes should be smooth, moist, of uniform 
color, and of a bright appearance. Any dullness of these mem- 
branes, any discharge from the nostril, and any ulceration, or scars 
of old ulcers, should be viewed with gravest suspicion in examining 
a strange horse. 

Glanders is a highly conta- 
r - r~ gious disease of germ origin, 

incurable, and, in this latitude. 
i ju ? usually fatal. It is, of all dis- 

eases incidental to the horse, 
the most malignant and the 
most to be dreaded. It is high- 
ly contagious to human beings 
also, and necessarily fatal to 
them. In dealing with a case 
of glanders, the greatest care 
should be taken to protect 
one's self from the germs. 
If the glanders germ attacks 
- &P the internal organs of the horse, 

the disease is known as glan- 
-- • (lers; but if it attacks the skin 

Figure 44.— An Overweighted Neck, or the vessels of the skin, the 

disease is called farcy. 

Glanders usually manifests itself by a clear, watery discharge 

from one nostril, lighter in color than in the case of a common cold. 

"A singular characteristic of glanders is that it generally attacks 

one nostril only, and that is the left one; only a few cases having 





ELEMENTS OF HIPPQLOGY. 



65 




Figure 45. — A Saddle Type. 

Courtesy of "The Rider and Driver." 



occurred where it commenced 
in the right nostril. Mr. Du- 
pay, a celebrated veterinary 
surgeon, and director of this 
school of surgery at Toulouse, 
mentions that out of eight 
hundred cases of glanders, 
which occurred during his 
practice, only one was affected 
in the right nostril. 

Farcy manifests itself in 
small tumors, soft at first, 
then breaking into an ulcer. 
" The farcy buttons occur most 
frequently on the side of the 
lips, on the sides of the neck, 
the lower part of the should- 
ers, the inside of the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may 
occur on any part of the horse." 

Farcy is always accompanied by the internal form of the dis- 
ease, although the latter may not be manifested by the nasal 
discharge. 

In order to discriminate between glanders and other diseases of 
the nasal membranes, the mallein test is frequently resorted to. 
Mallein is made by exposing a pure culture of the glanders germ 
to dry heat sufficient to kill the germs. This dead culture is then 
treated chemically to preserve it and is injected hypodermically 
under the skin of the neck, usually, of the suspect. His tempera- 
ture is taken twenty-four hours before the injection and again at 
the time of the injection. It is then taken every three to six hours 
for forty-eight hours afterwards. If the place of injection becomes 
materially inflamed and remains so for from two to five days, with 
an inflamed spot at least five inches in diameter, and a persistent 
rise of temperature of two degrees or more is noticed, the suspicion 



66 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



is fairly well confirmed. The animal should then be allowed to 
remain under observation in isolation for a month. If now the 
test is applied with similar results, the animal should be killed and 
burned and all his equipment and surroundings burned or thor- 
oughly disinfected. If, however, on the second test he does not 
respond, a third test should be made at the end of another month, 
which may safely be regarded as final. • 

Any horse that presents a discharge at the nostril should be 
at once isolated, and his stall and all his equipment thoroughly 
disinfected. 

Nasal gleet is a chronic diseased condition of the nasal mem- 
branes and of the linings of the facial sinuses. It is the result of 
neglected colds (bad stable management), or ulcerated teeth, and 
is a stubborn disease to cure. It is marked by a discharge from the 
nostrils, one or both, offensive odor, and frequently by no other out- 
ward symptom. Nasal gleet and glanders are frequently mistaken, 
one for the other. 

Influenza is a highly infectious disease, usually of brief dura- 
tion. True infleunza usually spreads in waves of contagion over 
large areas. It is easily spread and difficult of treatment. The 
patient is stupefied, hangs its head, is not easily roused; the eyes 
become inflamed and tears flow profusely. It is frequently followed 
by disabling complications. 

Catarrh is inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is called 
by various names, depending on its location. 

Cold in the head is an inflammation, catarrh, of the mucous 
membrane of the nasal passages and neighboring regions. It is 
manifested by dullness, fever, a watery discharge from the nose, 
and sometimes by an inflamed condition of the eyes. The patient 
should be exercised very little, placed in a loose stall, well venti- 
lated, but free from drafts. Like the human disease of the same 
name, the watery discharge, as the disease progresses, becomes 
thicker and of a whitish color. Colds in the head ought not to be 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 57 

neglected, nor should animals so affected be put to severe work 
until cured. 

Strangles, or distemper, also an infectious disease, manifests 
itself by catarrhal symptoms and by enlargements of the salivary 
glands lying near the angle of the lower jaw (the parotid glands). 
In the general case these glands suppurate and make an abscess 
easily recognized. An animal usually has this disease but once, 
and rarely after becoming of age. The danger from strangles is 
in the permanent thickening of the air-passages and permanent 
injury to the breathing apparatus in consequence. 

Poll-evil is an obstinate abscess on top of the head. It results 
from an injury received there, which sets up an inflammation that 
develops into an abscess. The muscles of the neck, in the region 
of the poll, extend downward and backward. Pus can easily bur- 
row in between them and follow the course of these muscles. Since, 
from its position, such an abscess can not readily drain its pus unless 
artificial drainage is provided, the pus will work down into the 
sound tissues, infecting them deeper and deeper. Any abscess where 
natural drainage is not possible is termed a fistula. Like other 
fistulas, poll-evil is the result of neglect. 

Blind staggers, or congestion of the brain, is a brain disease, 
similar to apoplexy. A horse affected with it will fall down and 
struggle about in a spasmodic fashion, injuring himself in his spasm 
and threatening injury to any other animal near him. It is a not 
uncommon disease, and is liable to recur at any time. Relief is 
obtained by blood-letting. The jugular vein is opened, and, after 
a sufficient amount of blood is drawn, is closed again, leaving a scar 
of operation, usually not hard to find and always worth looking for. 
The jugular channel is well shown in Figure 8. It is a groove 
on the lower margin of the neck. By rubbing the thumb briskly 
several times down the channel with considerable pressure and then 
pressing hard at the lower end of the channel, the jugular vein will 
be closed by the pressure. It will fill rapidly from above with 
blood and will become distended. 



68 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

The operation of blood-letting is sufficiently simple and safe 
to warrant any horse-owner to attempt it in cases of blind staggers 
or congestion of the lungs in emergencies when professional skill 
is not available. The flow of blood from a vein is easily controlled. 
By tying a stout cord around the base of the neck tightly, the jugu- 
lar veins will be compressed enough to dilate them; when they are 
easily seen. The fleam-blade of a farrier's knife is used. The point 
of the fleam is laid near the vein and is driven into it by a sharp 
blow of a stick on the back of the fleam. If the vein-wall is cut; 
the blood will flow freely in a constant stream. It should be caught 
and measured as it flows. From two to four quarts should be 
drawn — never more than four — depending on the size and condi- 
tion of the horse. A large, fat horse will stand the loss of more 
blood than a smaller horse in thin flesh will. 

The vein can be closed by sticking a pin through the walls of 
the vein at right angles to the cut and then winding horse-hair or 
strong linen thread around the ends, figure-of-8 fashion. 

This method of closing wounds is a very useful one to remem- 
ber. A horse whose skin has been cut by barbed wire or by other 
means can be saved an ugly blemish, if the edges of the wound 
are at once pinned together, placing the pins an inch or so apart, 
and then lacing horse-hair or thread around the ends of the pins. 
In the jugular wound the pins should be left in only three or 
four days. The wound in the skin can be kept open by putting a 
plug of oakum or absorbent cotton in it until the pins are withdrawn. 
Blood-letting should be resorted to, without professional assist- 
ance, only in extreme cases — when it is evident that the animal 
will die unless relieved. 



CHAPTER V. 



BITS— THEIR ACTION, INFLUENCE, AND 
PROPER USE.* 

A bit is an instrument devised to convey instructions to the 
horse from his rider in accordance with a set of signals concerning 
his guidance and control, whose separate meanings he has been 
taught to know. 

The perfectly trained horse that has a perfect temper needs a 
bit that conveys these instructions without pain. Such horses are, 
unfortunately, rare, so bits must be devised that not only convey 
instructions as to gait and direction, but that are capable of inflict- 
ing pain when the temper of the horse inclines him to disregard 
these instructions. 

The point of application — the seat — of the bit is on the bars 
of the horse's jaw, about one-third of the distance from the tushes 
to the molars (Figure 46). 

Figure 43 shows a simple bar bit in its normal position on the 
horse's jaw.t The horse's tongue lies in the opening between the 
two rows of teeth, under the bit, and, at rest, fills the space under 
the bit and partially supports it. 

The two ridge-like portions of the bone of the lower jaw be- 
tween the molars and the tushes are called the bars, and form the 
points of application for the bit. As regards their action on the 
horse's jaw, bits are classified as bar, snaffle, and curb bits. 



*An effort is made here to describe only the action of ordinary bits in 
common use, on normal mouths. The subject is a very broad one, and must 
necessarily be briefly touched on here. Captain M. Horace Hayes' admirable 
work, "Riding and Hunting," contains an exhaustive discussion of this subject. 

The author is indebted to Colonel Edwin St. J. Greble, Field Artillery, 
for much that is contained in this chapter. 

fThe same bone furnished the subject for this picture that was used in 
Figures 46 and 48. To make Figure 47 and in Figure 48 the bone was set at 
an angle, so that the bearing of the bit would show as if seen from the front. 



70 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 




A bar bit is an unbroken bit that acts, without leverage, directly 
on the horse's jaw, as in Figure 47. The bar bit is supported partly 

on the bars of the horse's jaw and 
partly on his tongue. This is tough, 
leathery, and insensitive. When the 
pressure of the bar bit on the horse's 
jaw becomes painful to the bars, he 
relieves the pain by thrusting his 
tongue further under the bit, there- 
by lifting it from the bars and trans- 
ferring the pressure to his tongue. 

To nullify this action of the tongue 
and still have a bit that is not, with 
proper use, excessively severe, a 
hinge is introduced in the center of 
the bar bit, and the resulting bit is 
called a snaffle bit. 

By pulling on the reins of a snaf- 
fle bit, a pincer action is developed 
by the closing of the angle between 
the halves of the mouth-piece. This 
raises the hinge, lifting the mouth- 
piece off the tongue, and applies 
pressure to the bars in a way im- 
possible of relief by the tongue. 

The snaffle may be made an in- 
strument of torture by jerking it or 





Figure 46. 
in Plan 



-The Lower Jaw-Bone 
Showing Bit-Place. 



by " sawing" on it. 



Both bar and snaffle bits should have large, generous mouth- 
pieces, should be very little longer than the width of the mouth, 
and should be so adjusted that the mouth-piece touches the corners 
of the mouth when no pressure is applied to the rein. 

The bar bit is more used as a driving-bit, the snaffle for riding. 
Both bits are manufactured in a great variety of shapes, each varia- 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



71 



tion designed to defeat some defense developed by horses in an 

effort to avoid pain. The bit shown in Figures 48, 49, and 50 is a 

very useful shape for a snaffle bit. 

The bit that has the least painful influence on the horse's mouth 

is the rubber-covered bar bit. Theoretically, this is the ideal bit. 

Mechanically 
any bit not having 
lever action acts as 
shown in the ac- 
companying plates. 
In Figures 49 and 
50, AB represent, 
graphically, a force 
acting through a 
pull on the reins 
fastened to a bar or 
snaffle bit, on the 
horse's jaw at A. 
Resolving this force 
into its two compo- 
nents, AE at right 
angles to the horse's 
jaw and AD paral- 
lel to it, AE will 
then represent the 
actual useful re- 
straining force and 
AD the wasteful 
force, operating 
merely to raise the 
horse's head. The 
force AD acts on 
the corners of the 
Figure 47. horse's mouth, or 




72 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



on his molars. As a matter of fact, this lifting effect has a larger 
influence on the attitude of a young horse while being broken 
than in the case of an old horse whose schooling is over. The 
latter learns to meet difficulties of this sort, if not made vicious or 

sulky by bad treatment, 
and renders good service 
in spite of them in a 
manner that often sur- 
prises the thoughtful 
horseman. The theory 
that the horse is not a 
reasoning animal re- 
ceives severe tests* in the 
cases of honest, faithful 
animals who do their 
work well in spite of im- 
patience, conflicting sig- 
nals, and, frequently, 
abuse. 

The curb bit (Figures 
51 and 52) is a bit oper- 
ating on an entirely dif- 
ferent principle from the 
two other kinds just dis- 
cussed. In the curb bit 
the force exerted by the 
pull on the rein is in- 
creased in intensity by 
the leverage of the bit, 
and the possibility of in- 
flicting pain is greatly 
augmented. 

The curb bit consists 
Figure 48. of two cheek-pieces with 




ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



73 



a mouth-piece connecting them at such a point that the upper branch 
of the cheek-piece will be about half the length of the lower one. This 
ratio is by no means fixed, however. The upper branch is usually 




Figure 49. 

The relative lifting and restraining influence of a pull exerted with the 
hands held low and the horse's head nearly vertical. 



between one and a half and two inches in length. The mouth-piece 
should be large in diameter. It has a curved central portion, called 
the port. The object of the port is to take pressure off the tongue, 



74 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 



when the bit is in use, and to localize it on the bars. The port, when 
the bit is at rest, lies on the tongue. When the bit is used, the port 




Figure 50. 

Distribution of the force exerted through the reins when the hand is held 
too high, or when the horse's nose is thrust to the front. 

revolves upward and forward, away from the tongue, with the result 
that the insensitive tongue is freed from its influence. At the upper 
ends of the cheek-pieces are rings for the attachment of the curb- 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



75 




Figure 51. 



Figure 52. 



chain. This chain should be so adjusted that, when it is brought 
into use, it will lie in a smooth depression of the jaw-bone, called 
the chin-groove. 

The chin-groove is the rounded portion of the jaw-bone just 
forward of the angle of the V. In health, it is smooth and rounded, 
and admirably fitted to receive the pressure of the curb-chain with- 
out injury to itself. The two branches of the jaw-bone are very 
thin and sharp on the under side, where they unite to form the 
chin-groove, and it is, as will be seen, highly important that the 
curb-chain should fit into the chin-groove, and not lie on these 
sharp bones. 

There should be loops on the posterior edges of the cheek- 



76 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



pieces, half way from the rein-rings to the mouth-piece, to which to 
attach the lip-strap. This strap is often necessary to prevent the 
horse from getting the lower branch of one of the cheek-pieces be- 
tween his teeth or lips, and so defeat the object of applying pressure 
to the sensitive bars. 

The principle of the curb bit is a very simple one. The power 
is applied by a pull on the reins to the lower ends of the cheek- 
pieces. The point of the horse's head to which this power is trans- 
mitted depends upon the adjustment of the bit and curb-chain. 
If the curb-chain is too loose, the bit will revolve around the mouth- 









: 






'"" iaik * ;:[ 8'i«i;# : w^Z-ZiM 


!|C ? ; ■■-;■=■::' .:;■ 


".',- : -x^-'4:^ : \^Vi 


. 




















Figure 53. — The Under Side of the Lower Jaw-Bone. 



piece as a fulcrum, and the cheek-pieces of the bridle will receive 
the load and apply it to the poll. This tends to bring the horse's 
head down. The curb-chain will lie in a plane nearly parallel to 
the plane of the cheek-pieces of the bit, and but little force will be 
applied to the bars or to the chin-groove. The bit will slip up in 
the horse's mouth, and will be held either by the lips or by the 
molars. Such a bit is said to fall through, as in Figure 54. 

The objection to having the curb-chain too loose is that the 
power of the bit to restrain the horse, because of the pain it inflicts, 
is lost to the rider. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



77 



The power is always applied to the curb bit at the lower end 
of the lower branch. Whether the bit is a lever of the first or sec- 
ond order will depend on where the horse feels the most pain when 
power is applied. 




Figure 54. 

If the chain is twisted so that it does not lie smoothly in the 
chin -groove, if it slips up on the sharp edges of the jaw-bone, or if 
it pinches the lips, the curb-chain will hurt the horse more then 
the mouth-piece does, and the lever will be of the first order. This 



yg ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

is, of course, undesirable. The horse will try to get away from 
the curb-chain by throwing his head forward, and a "hard-mouthed" 
horse is the result. 

If the curb-chain fits smoothly in the chin-groove, if it is not 
so tight as to pinch the lips at all times, or so loose as to let the bit 
fall through, a pull on the reins will cause the mouth-piece to hurt 
the bars more than the chain hurts the chin-groove. The fulcrum 
will then be at the upper end of the cheek-piece, the weight will 
be applied at the bars by the mouth-piece, and a lever of the second 
order results. This is the proper adjustment of the curb-chain, and 
is what should be sought for. 

When the bit falls through, the mouth-piece is slid up along the 
bars to find a fulcrum at the corners of the horse's lips or against 
the molars. It often happens that the lips, that have wrinkled up 
by the sliding upward of the bit, are caught between the curb- 
chain and the mouth-piece. The result is that, in the effort to get 
away from the pain caused by this pinching, the horse does not 
notice the painless pull on the poll, tending to drag his head down, 
but does notice the pain to his lips, and throws his head forward 
to avoid it. Thus the pinching of the lips makes the bit a lever 
of the first order. 

When the curb-chain is too tight, so that it slips up out of 
the chin-groove to the sharp edges of the branches of the jaw-bone, 
the bit is said to stand stiff, as in Figure 55. 

The horse usually opens his mouth when the bit stands stiff 
and sticks his nose forward. These actions should at once tell the 
rider that the bit is out of adjustment, and he should adjust it. 

The correct adjustment is shown in Figure 52. The chain fits 
easily into the groove, as the reins are tightened; the lips are not 
wrinkled or pinched, but the mouth-piece remains in its place, an 
inch below the corners of the lips. The bit does not revolve so 
far as to waste the greater part of the exertions of the rider in a 
painless pull on the head. 

In fitting a horse with a curb bit, there is no better rule to 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



79 







"''..' 




J^EL 
















/•■■' ^^ 




W ■ 4? ■■- 




T" -s^" ■ -* 


a— . 












%0^t^": : % 























Figure 55. 



follow than is used in fitting a man with a shoe — try it on. If it 
pinches the lips, it is too narrow; if there is play enough to allow 
the corners of the port to bear on the bars as the bit slips from side 
to side, it is too wide. There should be just room between the 
cheek-pieces of the bit for the cheek-straps of the bridle, the curb- 
chain fastenings, and the horse's muzzle, with say a quarter or 
three-eighths of an inch added to prevent chafing. 



80 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 56. 



Before mounting a horse, the rider should always examine "the 
adjustment of the bit with as much care as he puts in his inspection 
of the saddle. Whether or not the horse will be comfortable — and 
if he is not comfortable, the rider will not be — depends largely on 
the fit of his equipments, and, more than any other single thing, on 
the fit of the bit and curb-chain. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



81 




Figure 57. 
Hands too high, ungraceful, and ineffective. 

The snaffle bit and the bar bit as well, as we have seen, tend 
to make the horse raise his head. The hands of the rider, in con- 
sequence, when using the snaffle, should be held as low as practicable 
to counteract this tendency. Figures 57 and 58 illustrate this point. 

The low position of the hands does not influence the action 



82 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 











Figure 58. 

Proper position of hand using snaffle bit to minimize the 
lifting effect of the bit. 

of the curb 1 it, for the depressing action of that bit lies in the bit 
itself, and the position of the hands, within limits, has no effect 
upon it. The low position is much the more graceful, however, 
and, because the hands are nearer to a point of support, adds to 
the'security of the rider. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 33 

The ordinary curb bit exerts a downward pressure on the poll, 
which increases as the curb-chain is loosened, allowing the upper 
branch to revolve further forward and downward. This is objec- 
tionable, but as no bit has ever been devised that removes it without 
introducing more objectionable features, it is a condition that must 
be accepted for the present. 

The best arrangement for guiding and controlling horses is the 
bit and bridoon in common use among good horsemen the world 
over. The combination is shown in Figures 54, 55, and 56. This 
enables the rider to use the comfortable snaffle or bar bit for the 
ordinary business of riding. The curb remains always at hand, out 
of the way, simple, powerful, ready to control the horse in those 
rare moments, for the well-trained and well-handled horse, when 
the snaffle is insufficient. 

A Pelham bit is one that combines, in a way, the functions 
of bit and bridoon. There are many varieties of Pelham bits, but 
the main object of them all is to do away with the second mouth- 
piece of the bit and bridoon by attaching the bridoon reins to rings 
at the end of the mouth-piece of the bit. 

There are thousands of variations of the three classes of bits 
described in this chapter.* In all these variations the one object 
sought is to manufacture a bit that will control the horse and, at. 
the same time, guide him. A horse is an animal of low intelligence ; 
unless startled or hurt, he is usually willing to do as he is bid. 
When suddenly alarmed, his small intelligence is entirely absorbed 
in how to escape from the cause of his alarm. In such a moment 
his rider must have an instrument that, by the pain it can inflict, 
will draw his attention away from the thing that threatens to the 
thing that hurts. As a creature of habit, he has learned to obey 
certain signals in a set way ; if the bit, while inflicting pain, also 



*One firm in New York, dealing in nothing but bits, sends out a catalogue 
of over four hundred pages describing their goods, and several bits are described 
on each page. 



g 4 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

gives the signal he has learned to obey, he will instinctively obey 
it. Then the infliction of pain should cease. 

In selecting a combination of bit and bridoon, the bit should 
be powerful, but perfect-fitting, and the bridoon as comfortable as 
possible, in order to let the horse know definitely the difference 
between guidance and control. The guidance should be mild, the 
control absolute. 



BITTING.* 



"I have nothing to say about the snaffle, except that it ought 
to be rather thick, so as to reduce its severity, and that it should 
be placed at about an equal distance from the bit and the corners 
of the mouth. 

"The form of a curb bit and the position it is placed in the 
mouth are points of great importance. It is impossible to decide 
at first glance what kind of a curb will suit a young horse best and 
what position it should occupy in his mouth. Baucher says that 
he would use the same kind of a bit for all kinds of horses, which 
statement is the consequence of his pet theory that all horses have 
the same kind of mouth. I will here content myself with saying 
that even the most inexperienced horseman will state that horses 
go better in one bit than in another, and that certain animals will 
go kindly in a snaffle, but will resent the use of a rather severe curb. 
This is a generally accepted fact, which has been amply proved. We 
can find the best curb for a horse only by trial. But there are 
always certain principles to help us in making our experiments, 
which we may sum up as follows : 

"The curb which is used at the beginning of the breaking 
should have a thick mouth-piece, low port, and short cheek-pieces, 
so that it may be easy to the mouth. Its width should be propor- 
tionate to that of the mouth of the horse. If it is too narrow, the 



'From "Breaking and Riding," by James Fillis, pp. 10-13. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 85 

lips will be compressed by the cheek-pieces; if it is too wide, the 
horse, either in play or to relieve the bars of the mouth from press- 
ure, will bring it too much on one side of his mouth, so that a part 
of the port will rest on one of the bars, and consequently the mouth- 
piece will exert an uneven pressure, which will almost always cause 
the horse to carry his head sideways. 

"In order that the curb may fit properly, it should be wide 
enough for the cheeks to keep clear of the lips on each side. The 
mouth-piece should have an even feeling on each side of the mouth 
and should be midway between the tushes and the corners of the 
lips, and consequently it will be lower in the mouth than the snaffle, 
in the case of a double bridle. Later on I shall point out some 
exceptions to this rule. The lower ends of the cheek pieces, yield- 
ing to the pull of the reins, cause the upper ends to revolve forward, 
and thus to produce pressure on the bars of the mouth. The curb- 
chain, which prevents the upper ends of the cheeks from revolving 
forward, increases the pressure on the bars proportionate^ to its 
shortness. Hence, the length of the curb-chain should be propor- 
tionate to the lightness of the horse's mouth, which we are unable 
to estimate in the case of a perfectly green horse. With such an 
animal, we should at first leave the curb-chain very loose, as there 
will always be time to take it up. It would not, on the contrary, 
be right to say that there is always time to slacken a tight curb- 
chain, which causes pain that will continue to be felt by the horse 
after the curb-chain has been let out. If, however, we begin with 
a loose curb-chain and gradually shorten it to the desired extent, 
we shall avoid hurting the bars of the mouth and irritating the 
horse to resistance, and we gain time. But if, at the beginning of 
the work, we hurt or even irritate the bars by undue pressure, we 
shall fail to obtain any of the required indications. By artificially 
increasing the sensitiveness of the bars, we fail to estimate it cor- 
rectly, and work on a wrong method from the beginning. The 
bruising or even the mere irritation of the bars does not disappear 
as soon as the work is finished and the bridle taken off, but con- 



gg ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

tinues for a more or less long period. Consequently, when the next 
lesson is given, the bars are congested and painful. The rider will 
then be apt to form an opinion of the effects he produces on the 
mouth of the horse without taking into consideration that it is in 
an abnormal condition, and he will increase the evil which has been 
done, and he will become more and more unable to correctly esti- 
mate what is the natural condition of the mouth. In a word, he 
will do the very things he ought not to do. From the foregoing 
observations we can see that, at the beginning of the breaking, the 
curb-chain should be loose — in fact, it is better to take it off. 

"The knowledge of the mouth of a green horse is an important 
and delicate matter. In order to gently feel the mouth without 
spoiling it, we must begin with great lightness of hand, and grad- 
ually increase the pressure up to the point of making the horse 
feel it, which sensitiveness varies in degree according to the animal. 
If a horse yields to the light pressure of a curb that has no curb- 
chain, of what use is the curb-chain, and what is the good of seeking 
for a more powerful means of restraint? 

"I have thoroughly broken horses, not only for the manege, 
but also for outdoor work, without using a curb-chain, which may 
remain hooked up on one of the curb-hooks, so that it may be in- 
stantly used in case of need. As a rule, it should not be employed 
unless the rider finds that he needs its help. When he uses it, he 
should never put more tension on it than is actually required; the 
proper maximum being when the curb-chain is tightened up so that 
it makes an angle of forty-five degrees with the lower jaw. 

"As the tension of the curb-chain should be proportionate to 
the sensitiveness of the bars, so should the pressure caused by the 
pull of the reins be proportionate to the resistance. If this resist- 
ance is slight, the effort to overcome it should be light, and the 
point of its application should be high up on the jaw; if the resist- 
ance is great, the effort should be energetic and it should be applied 
low down. Therefore, without greatly altering the middle position 
which the mouth-piece should occupy between the tushes and the 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. g7 

corners of the lips, we may raise or lower the mouth-piece so that 
the horse may yield his jaw by, respectively, a light feeling of the 
reins or by a strong pull on them. In other words, the softer the 
mouth is, the higher should be the mouth-piece; and the harder, 
the lower should it be placed. In no case, however, should it press 
on or even touch the corners of the lips or the tushes. 

"We learn from the foregoing remarks that the proper tension 
of the curb-chain and the right position of the mouth-piece in the 
mouth of the young horse can be found only from experience, which 
should be gained from very slight effects that can be gradually 
increased in severity as the case may demand." 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE FRONT LEG. 

Beginning at the top, the bones of the front leg are named as 
follows: shoulder-blade (scapula), arm-bone (humerus), forearm- 
bone* (radius), the bones of the 





■f > 

if > 


5i 


1 




0/ 


i 






szfm 


4 




ifc'f 






HHupper pastern 
iqk joint 




vm 1 
UPf W 


V 


ijKRN' 




1 

■ m 




'S 




„^ 




JjUg LOWER PAST£RN 

£Tfyk joint 




LOW* 




^i^^i? N 


NAVICULAR 


S0NE J rfl 


J^s 


^§p-M$»L' JOINT 




--^P 


ffi£«i 


^ : ^^My0^' 




COFFIN 


BONE 



knee, cannon-bone (Figure 59), 
the splint-bones, of which there 
are two, one each side of the 
cannon-bone (A, Figure 63), the 
sesamoids, upper and lower pas- 
tern-bones, navicular-bone, and 
coffin-bone (Figure 56). 

The joints are the shoulder- 
joint, the elbow-joint, the knee, 
the fetlock-joint, the lower 
pastern-joint, and the navicular- 
joint. 

The external nomenclature of 
this region is shown in Figure 61. 
The shoulder-blade, which has 
no bony connection — no articu- 
lation — with the trunk, is bound 
to it by muscles alone. The horse 
has no collar-bone. Below, it ar- 
ticulates with the arm-bone at 
the shoulder-joint. Unlike the other joints in the horse's anat- 
omy, these two bones are not bound together by numerous liga- 
ments, but by one very strong enveloping ligament, which permits 
great freedom of extension and flexion, and some side-play. It is 



Figure 60. — Nomenclature of 
the Bones of the Foot. 



*The ulna, the upper portion of the forearm-bone, reaching from just 
below the elbow-joint to the point of the elbow, a separate bone in the colt, 
becomes completely united to the forearm-bone in the adult horse. 



90 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



a very strong joint, and is not liable to sprain, except from external 
causes. In almost every case of obscure lameness in front, the 
trouble lies below the shoulder-joint. The point of the shoulder 




Figure 61. — External Nomenclature of Front Leg. 

This is a picture of Peter Pan, a fine type to sire Cavalry Horses. 

Courtesy of Lieut.-Col. H. T. Allen, U. S. Cavalry. 

marks the position of the shoulder-joint. The shoulder-blade should 
slope well forward, towards the point of the shoulder, in order to 
insure a comfortable seat for the rider. The arm-bone articulates 
with the forearm-bone at the elbow-joint. This joint is a little 
below the upper end of the forearm-bone, and the projection of the 
bone, above the joint, is called the elbow. In order that the horse 
shall be " handy" in front, or have free action, the elbow should 
have considerable lateral motion. The absence of this condition 
is termed tied down to the chest. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



91 



Sprains in the elbow-joint are very rare. All bones are covered 
with membranes that secrete either bony tissue or fluids needful 
to keep the bones properly moist. At the elbow and hock, these 
membranes are not covered by muscles, but directly by the skin. 
Inflammation, resulting from a blow to these unprotected parts, is 
not manifested in the usual way, but by an increased secretion of 
fluid, accompanied by a thickening of the skin and membranes over 
the injured part. This fluid is the same that is found in the familiar 
water-blister. When the elbow is injured, the resulting " blister" 
is termed a capped elbow (Figure 62). This trouble is found most 
frequently in horses carelessly or ignorantly shod, and stabled on 
brick, concrete, or granite block floors, and is due to the shoe, or 
the floor, striking the elbow when the horse lies down. It is some- 
times called a shoe-boil, and, while easily removed, if taken in 
time, still its presence argues some weakness in the fore leg that 
prevents the horse from easing down properly in the act of lying 
down; he brings his elbow to the ground with more force than a 
perfectly sound horse of good conformation should do. 

Between the leg-bone and the cannon-bone is a group of small 
bones, six in front, called carpals, and one, larger, in rear, called 
the trapezium (Figure 63). The joint formed by these bones is 
called the knee. It is a hinge in the continuity of forearm-bone and 
cannon-bone, whose function is to enable the foot to be brought 
forward without striking the toe on the ground, and, by the elas- 
ticity of its cartilages, to reduce the shock of impact of the foot 
with the ground. 

The trapezium is a bone placed at the back of the knee to 
afford a lever-like attachment for the tendons that bend the knee. 
The carpal-bones are arranged in two layers, three in a layer. The 
upper three articulate, with thick cartilages between, with the leg- 
bone. The lower three carpals rest on the metacarpals, of which 
there are three. One, the great metacarpal, or cannon-bone, 
continues the bony column towards the foot. The other two, on 
either side of the cannon-bone, are rudimentary, and are called 



92 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



splint-bones (Figure 63, 
A). 

When viewed from the 
front or side, the knee 
should be broad; wedge- 
shaped, when viewed 
from the rear. 

The leg below the knee 
should not become rapid- 
ly smaller, but should 
taper gradually towards 
the upper pastern-joint. 
When it is decidedly 
smaller just below the 
knee, the horse is said to 
be tied in below the knee 
(Figure 61). 

Horses that are knee- 
tied usually owe that de- 
fect to a small trapezium. 
This makes them defi- 
cient in power where it 
is very necessary. 

Any wound or injury 
to the knee caused by a 
horse falling on his knees 
is called a broken knee, whether the skin is merely broken, or the 
bones shattered (Figure 64). It is as living motive-power that a 
horse is valuable. Anything that brings in question the reliability 
of the columns through which this power is exerted (his legs) or the 
pilot that governs the direction of its application (his sight) is of 
the highest importance to investigate. For that reason it is import- 
ant to know whether or not a horse is sure on his front feet. 
Broken knees are a sign of a failure at some time in his history; hence 




Figure 62. — Capped Elbow. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



93 



a most careful scrutiny of the front faces of his knees should be 
made. It often happens that a horse falls and bruises his knee in a 
perfectly innocent way, but such happenings are rare. As a rule, 
the fall is due to some defect in the horse himself. The would-be 
purchaser is wise who rejects finally any horse with broken knees. 

The back tendons, leading 
from the trapezium to the 
pastern, when strained, are 
causes of lameness. This 
strain occurs more often in 
saddle-horses that are galloped 
when tired. It is noticeable 
by an enlargement of the 
tendon, or its sheath, below 
the knee, usually nearer the 
knee than the pastern, and a 
tendency to keep the knees 
bent forward when at rest, to 
ease the strain on those ten- 
dons. 

A tendon is a dense, fibrous, 
inelastic tissue that connects 
a muscle with a bone. Its 
function is to transmit to the 
bone the energy developed by 
the contraction of the muscle. 
A ligament is also a dense, 
fibrous tissue, and serves to 
bind two bones, usually, to- 
gether. Tendons are usually 
Figure 63. of the shape of ropes, and do 

To illustrate the position of the splint- their work, while ligaments 

bone, A, with reference to the bones of the are f a variety of shapes, 
knee, the cannon-bone, B, and the tendons xui.u-j.i-i, 

of the foot. The ligament that binds the 




94 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



shoulder-blade to the arm-bone, at the shoulder- joint is like a broad, 
enveloping bandage. The ligaments joining the head and withers 
of a horse and supporting the vertebrae of the neck resemble closely 
the cable and supporting rods of a suspension-bridge. The bones 

of the knee and the hock 
are held in place by nu- 
merous ligaments of a 
variety of shapes, while 
the ligament that sup- 
ports the contents of the 
abdomen, hung between 
the ribs, the hips, and 
the under side of the 
pelvis, is shaped like a 
hammock. 

A cartilage is a dense, 
highly elastic substance 
that envelops the ends 
of bones at joints. 

There is no room for 
muscles between the 
knee, or the hock, and 
the ground. The space 
between the skin and 
the bones is filled with 
tendons, reaching from 
the muscles of the shoul- 
Figure 64. — Broken Knees. der and arm to their at- 

tachments on the cannon-bone, pastern, and foot, with ligaments 
binding the bones together, the sheaths of these tendons and liga- 
ments and the nerves, blood and other vessels supplying the lower 
leg and foot. All these tissues are compact, lying closely together. 
They should be cool to the touch, smooth and firm. Any puffiness, 
any undue heat, any sensitiveness or roughness are sure signs of 
disease. 





- 




., 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 95 

Often when a horse is idle and is over-fed, his legs will swell 
and will become feverish and painful. The animal will move in a 
stilty, stiff way. This lameness will disappear with proper feeding 
and exercise, and it should not be confused with the lameness 
resulting from ligaments or tendons strained from overwork. 

In the young horse the three metacarpals are separate bones. 
Due to injury, or conformation, or improper shoeing, or overwork, 
these bones throw out bony deposits that gradually unite them. 
In the aged horse this union is a normal condition, and, if the bon}^ 
tumor marking the union is not so high as to interfere with the ac- 
tion of the carpals, or far enough back to interfere with the action 
of the tendons and the suspensory ligaments, no harm results. This 
is the simple splint (Figure 61). 

A beaded splint is a series of two or more such enlargements, 
running down the splint-bone. 

If the bony deposit spreads to the back of the cannon-bone 
and across it to the splint-bone on the other side, it is called a 
pegged splint. This is its worst form, is incurable, and results in 
chronic lameness. 

If the bony growth encroaches upon the carpals, or interferes 
with the tendons or ligaments, serious lameness, usually incurable, 
results. 

In Figure 63 the position of the splint-bone, A, with respect 
to the knee-bones, the tendons in rear, and the cannon-bone, B, 
is clearly shown. The tendons, when the horse is in motion, are 
in constant motion up and down. They are immensely strong, in- 
elastic tissues, covered with delicate membranes that supply the 
lubricants necessary to permit them to slip easily and freely. 

Any bony growth on the rear of the splint-bone will interfere 
with this ease of movement, and the roughness of the bony tumors 
will lacerate and inflame the sheaths of the tendons. 

If the bony tumor encroaches on the knee-bones, it is seen 
easily that much damage will result. 

If, however, the union between the bones A and B is effected 



96 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 



by a growth between the bones and to the front, there is no moving 
tissue that is interfered with, and lameness will not result. 

The extremely large splint shown in Figure 65 has apparently 
not inconvenienced the horse in the least. 

A wound on the upper end of the inside splint at A, Figure 63, 
caused by the shoe of the front foot striking it at high gaits, is 
caUed speedy cut. This is a very serious defect. The interference 
that causes it happens only at high speed; the pain resulting is very 

great, sufficient often to 
bring the animal to his 
knees, and to cause de- 
plorable accidents. 

The line of the fore leg 
should be nearly 
straight, the cannon- 
bone prolonging the ra- 
dius. If this line bends 
forward, the horse stands 
over at the knees; if 
it bends b a c k, he is 
calf-kneed. The former 
is a sign of muscular de- 
ficiency — lack of power. 
A calf-kneed horse, if put 
to hard work, is apt to 
strain the tendons or lig- 
aments. 

The fetlock should be 
small — not as broad as 
the knee when viewed 
from the front, nor any 
broader when taken in 
profile — it should be flat 
Figure 65.— Simple' Splint. from side to side. 





" 



'-- ." 



98 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



The skin should be closely drawn without pufnness, and the joint 

should be clean cut. 

Wind-galls (Figure 67), due to enlargement of the membrane 

secreting the lubricant for the joint, and containing it, and caused 

by violent exertion or overwork, are often found at the fetlock and 

ankle. If they are 
soft to the pressure 
of the finger, and 
cool, they are little 
more than blem- 
ishes; if they are 
soft and hot, indi- 
cating inflamma- 
tion, they are the 
result of a strain to 
one of the tendons ; 
if hard and inflam- 
ed, they result from 
some injury to the 
bone or its cover- 
ing. Both of these 
two latter condi- 
tions are serious 
and demand atten- 
tion. 

Under the back 
part of the fetlock 
is a horny growth, 
called the ergot. It 
seems, like the 
other horny growth 
higher up on the 
Figure 67. — Wind-Galls. inside of the radius, 

called the chestnut (Figure 76), to be of no functional value. 




ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



99 



f/iqh. rin g-bone 



Any bony deposit upon the pastern bones is termed a ringbone. 
If the deposit is above the joint between the two pastern-bones, it is 
a high ringbone. This is its most common form and is easily de- 
tected. If the ringbone is confined to the side of the joint, it is less 
serious than if it extends to the back or front of the joint, when an 
incurable lameness results. Most serious of all is the low ringbone, 

which involves the joints 
between the lower pas- 
tern-bone and its neigh- 
bors. This is difficult 
for the amateur to de- 
tect, as it is generally 
contained within the 
hoof. 

Sidebones are bony 
enlargements in the 
heels, showing just above 
the hoof. 

The pastern should 
slope well from the rear 
to the front, and should 
be very elastic in action. 
Too great a slope causes 
undue tension on the 
tendons and ligaments. 
About forty-five degrees 
of slope is best. More 
slope than that would 
indicate weakness in this part. The slope of the pastern is deter- 
mined by. the length of the upper pastern-bone; — the longer the 
bone, the greater the slope, and the reverse. A short, upright pas- 
tern is an almost invariable sign of a rough saddle-horse. 

The principal function of the fore leg is to support weight, to 
carry the forehand and its load ahead and out of the way of the pro- 




/rifJariied /at I. _ , / 
eral cf/ii/ogc \ 



Figure 68. 



100 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 69. — A Model of Conformation. 
Brother Jed, Champion Runabout Horse of America. 

pelling haunches. It must be so shaped that it can perform this work 
without injury to itself and carry its load as nearly level as possible. 
Elasticity in carrying its load is secured through the cartil- 
ages and muscles. The shock of impact is transmitted at each 
joint, partly to the bone above the joint and partly to the mus- 
cles controlling the bone below it, through the tendons connecting 
them. The smaller the angle between two adjoining bones, the 
greater will be the portion of the shock transmitted to the mus- 
cles. In the fore leg, three joints are between bones inclining more 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



101 




102 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

or less to each other — the fetlock, the elbow, and the shoulder- 
joint. If the upper pastern-bone is long, it will slope well from 
the cannon to the hoof; if it is short, it will stand straight. Simi- 
larly, a short arm-bone will bring the point of the shoulder nearer 
the elbow and straighten the shoulder-blade. 

The fore leg of the camel is straight from the foot to the upper 
end of the shoulder-blade. Consequently, the shock of impact is 
carried to the shoulder muscles, lessened only by the elasticity of 
the cartilages between the bones. As a result, the camel is the most 
uncomfortable saddle-animal known. 

The slope of the shoulder should be about forty-five degrees 
and that of the pastern about the same. The horse shown in the 
half-tone on the following page may be taken as a model of con- 
formation. His shoulder-blade slopes at the proper angle, and is 
very long. His forearm is very long, and strongly muscled. His 
elbow, knee, and pastern are smooth, clean-cut joints. The cannon 
is short and prolongs the forearm. 

A straight shoulder and a straight, short pastern should be 
avoided. The horse will not only be uncomfortable to ride, but 
he will " pound" himself at the faster gaits and become lame from 
the concussion. 

Splints, sprained tendons and ligaments, ringbones, sidebones, 
wind-galls, and most of the diseases of the feet are due to this 
concussion. 



CHAPTER VII. 



THE BACK. 

The back is mainly of interest because it furnishes the position 
of the saddle, and it is necessary to know something of its anatomy 
to be able to place the saddle and its load so they will not injure it. 

The bones of the back are eighteen vertebrae of the spinal col- 
umn, and the ribs. The first eight of these vertebrae, with their 
muscular coverings, are called, taken collectively, the withers. The 
upper spines of six or seven, usually, of these bones are much longer, 
as can be seen in Figure 71, than any of the others, and they furnish 
points of attachment for the suspensory ligament of the neck and for 
several important muscles of the back, shoulder, and ribs. 

In front of the haunch-bone are six vertebrae, called the lumbar 
vertebrae; they slope towards the front. All the vertebrae of the 
back are well padded with muscles on the sides, but are very close 
to the skin on top, and these upper extremities must be very care- 
fully protected from any pressure. 

Looking at Figure 70, the muscles of the back are seen to be 
broad and long. These muscles have slight motions; they are sev- 
eral inches thick, and are admirably ^adapted to receive the saddle 
and its load, provided the load is kept off the spinal column and is 
evenly distributed. 

On each side of the withers, a little lower than their crest, lie 
the upper ends of the shoulder-blades. These bones are tipped 
with a broad, thick band of cartilage — indicated in Figure 71 — to 
protect the bone itself from injury. 

The shoulder-blade, as has been said, has no bony union with 
the spinal column. It is simply bound on the ribs and spinal col- 
umn by a number of very strong muscles that control its move- 
ments. The center of its motion is about one-third its length from 
the upper end. When the foot is brought forward, the lower end 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



105 




205 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

of the shoulder-blade swings forward and upward, around this center 
of motion, and the upper end swings backward and downward. 

The saddle must be so placed as not to interfere with the free 
play of this bone. It has been found that if the front of the side- 
bar of the McClellan saddle is placed so that three fingers can be 
laid between it and the shoulder-blade when the horse is standing, 
the play of the bone will not be interfered with. 

The saddle in ordinary use for pleasure-riding does not need 
to be built to carry any load but the rider. It has a very small 
rigid frame, called the tree, is carefully and thoroughly padded, 
and needs no blanket or pad under it to protect the horse's back. 
A leather sweat-pad, called the numnah, should be used under it, 
to prevent its padding from becoming ruined by sweat. 

These saddles should be padded to fit each particular horse, 
and should not be used on another horse. If this precaution is 
taken, the saddle will naturally fall on its proper place and will 
stay there. As long as the padding is good and the numnah kept 
clean, there is small danger of injury being done to the horse's back. 

The McClellan saddle has an inflexible tree. Its shape is per- 
manent. Its side-bars project well to the front and rear of the 
rider's seat to give points of attachment and support to the packs 
that, for military use, are strapped to the pommel and cantle. The 
bearing surfaces of the side-bars are designed to approximately fit 
the average horse's back, but, as all horses' backs differ more or 
less in shape, each saddle bears slightly differently on every horse. 
To equalize the pressure on the muscles of the back, they are pro- 
tected by six folds of a heavy woolen blanket. 

The present service saddle adjusts itself automatically to the 
horse's back, in so far as the bearing surfaces of the side-bars are 
concerned. It is properly placed when the front edge of the side- 
bars approach closely to the shoulder-blade, without pressing on 
it. The packs are not allowed to rest directly on the side-bars, as 
in the McClellan saddle, but on supports that are devised especially 
to raise the packs and keep all weight off the surface of the side- 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



107 



bars. The girth should be about four inches in rear of the elbow. 
Its position is readily adjusted by girth strap-adjusters. 




The Service Saddle, Model 1912, U. S. Cavalry. 



10g ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

The blanket must be folded very carefully; no wrinkles should 
be allowed, nor any dirt or other foreign substances, in any of its 
folds. Anything that causes undue pressure on any spot under the 
saddle will compress the capillaries of that spot and prevent it from 
receiving the supply of blood necessary to keep it built up. If this 
pressure is sufficient to chafe the skin, the resulting wound is very 
liable to become infected, as the woolen blanket, impregnated with 
sweat, is a favorable place for the growth of microbes. If the skin 
is not broken, when the pressure is removed the spot affected will 
immediately become inflamed, and a sore will probably result, under 
the skin, that will, unless taken properly in hand, finally destroy 
the skin over it, and become an open sore. In either case the horse 
is said to have, first, a saddle-gall; then, if this is neglected, a sore 
back. If this sore back is along the ridge of the back-bone, the 
pus can not easily be drained; it may make sinuses along the spines 
of the vertebrae, and a fistula results. 

Another serious result of a neglected sore back comes when 
the sore practically heals. Active suppuration has then ceased, and 
the wound heals over imperfectly, leaving a dead, hard piece of skin 
over the sore, itself covered by a thick scab. An inert abscess is 
left under the skin, which breaks out when pressure is again applied 
to it. This is a sitfast, an obstinate, troublesome sore, that needs 
constant watching. 

If there is time to devote to it, the sitfast should be cut out 
and the wound compelled to heal slowly, filling up from the bottom 
with sound tissue. 

When the saddle is first removed, the horse's back should be 
carefully looked over. If any chafed places or inflamed spots are 
noticed, they should be washed clean and briskly rubbed for fifteen 
or twenty minutes to restore a healthy circulation. Fomenting the 
back with warm water, carefully drying it before leaving it, is also 
an excellent treatment. The under side of the blanket should be 
inspected, to locate the cause of the trouble, and the greatest care 
should be taken, when the horse is next saddled, to keep all pressure 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 10 g 

from the sore spot. This can be effected by cutting a hole in the 
blanket over the sore, saddling carefully, and adjusting the blanket 
at every halt. 

Saddle-sores are invariably the result of neglect or improper 
use. If the saddle is properly placed on the horse's back; if the 
girth is snug enough to keep the saddle from shifting; if the pack 
is equally distributed on the saddle, so as to give an equal load on 
each side, and if the rider sits erect, and rides with an elastic seat, 
never slouching in the saddle, saddle-sores will not appear on the 
horse's back. 

Slouching in the saddle, or riding " lop-sided," is responsible 
for more sore backs than any other cause. Next in order as a 
producer of sore backs is a cinche or girth that is too long. 

With the ordinary riding, or non-military, saddle, sores are 
more frequently caused by badly fitting pads. The rider should 
see that they are equally hard throughout, that they are thick 
enough to keep the tree off the backbone, and that the saddle does 
not cant to right or left. This saddle, once properly fitted and 
adjusted, should not slip on the average horse. The military saddle 
must be watched, even after it has been properly adjusted, or it 
may shift to front or rear. 

. A saddle-horse should have a flat back, moderately high with- 
ers, not too thick, and a sloping shoulder. Figure 69 shows an ex- 
cellent back. The shoulder is especially good. A long, sloping 
shoulder, reaching out well in front of the rider, gives him a feeling 
of security that he can not have if the shoulder ends near his 
own knee. 

The muscles that pull the shoulder-blade forward are attached 
to the poll and upper four neck vertebrae; the ones that draw it 
back are attached to the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae and the first 
eight ribs. This explains why a horse that is down can be kept 
down by raising his head and bending it back towards his shoulder. 
The neck muscles that move the shoulder-blade forward — and hence 
the whole leg — are incapable of acting. If a horse can not move 




a, 

b 

i 



3 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



Ill 




Figure 74. — A Study in Conformation. 
Sir Thomas, Thoroughbred Officer's Charger. 

Courtesy of Lieut. -Col. Henry T. Allen, U. S. Cavalry. 

his fore leg forward when he is down, to get a bearing, he can not rise . 

High withers, extending well back, are generally associated with 
long necks, long and sloping shoulder-blades, and powerful back 
muscles. Low withers are generally found on animals with short 
necks and straight shoulder-blades. The withers should not be too 
fleshy and thick. 

The horse shown in Figure 73 has very thin, prominent withers, 
and his back slopes too much from the croup. The result is that 
the saddle could not be kept from chafing the top of his withers, 
which were always sore after a ride. He was, in consequence, not for 



112 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 75. — Nearly Everything Wrong. 



duty most of the time, and had to be sold as unfit for saddle purposes. 

While he was a coarse, ill-looking animal, still he was very 
strong, active, and comfortable to ride, and, aside from his sore 
withers, perfect^ sound when sold. But for that defect he would 
have given many years of useful service. 

The horse shown in Figure 75 has been several years at the 
Military Academy. His withers are much too thin and prominent, 
but are kept from ever getting sore, because it is impossible to keep 
the saddle in its position long enough to chafe them, unless inten- 
tionally fastened there with a too tight breast-strap; even then 
his shoulder is so straight that it has but little play. He is rough 
to ride, ungainly, and has no staying power. He can hardly be said 
to have a single redeeming trait. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



THE TRUNK. 

If the legs and neck were removed from the horse's body, the 
trunk would remain. It is subdivided into the breast, the chest 
with its enclosing ribs, the back and loins, the abdomen (the cavity 
in the rear part of the trunk) and its contents, the hips, and the 
croup. 

The breast is the muscular front portion of the chest, and is 
bounded by a line connecting the points of both shoulders and by 
the arm-bone on each side. For saddle purposes, great width of 
breast is usually at the expense of leaping power and speed, since 
this width is usually produced by over-development of the shoulder 
muscles, and not because of increased capacity of the chest. 

The lungs and heart are enclosed, by the ribs and diaphragm, 
in the chest. It is by the expansion of the chest that air is brought 
into the lungs, and by its contraction that air is expelled. This 
expansion and contraction is performed by the muscles of the ribs. 
The greater the expansive power of the chest, the greater quantity 
of air will be drawn into the lungs, and the purifying and vitalizing 
of the blood will be more completely performed. The ribs should, 
therefore, be long, convex, and slope to the rear. A horse whose 
ribs approach close to the haunch-bone is said to be well ribbed up. 

The cavity of the chest is separated from the abdomen by a 
muscular partition, called the diaphragm. The entire cavity of the 
chest is lined by a very smooth, well-lubricated membrane, called 
the pleura, which envelops, without attaching itself to, the heart 
and lungs. The abdomen contains the stomach, the intestines, the 
kidneys, and the various glands whose secretions assist in the 
processes of digestion. 

It is by the expansion and contraction of the chest that the 
ungs perform their function of purifying and oxidizing the blood. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. H5 

The lungs can not be too big The chest, to contain large lungs, 
should be deep from top to bottom, long from front to rear, and 
have great convexity. 

The abdomen must also be roomy, but only to a certain extent. 
If the abdomen is small — " tucked up," as it is called — there will be 
little room for food to be stored, the horse will be a dainty eater, 
requiring frequent feeding, and he will be unfit for hard service. 
If his abdomen is too large, its excessive weight will prevent the 
horse from being active or fast, and he will be clumsy and unpleas- 
ant to ride. A horse possessing the first fault is said to be herring- 
gutted, and the last mentioned, pot-bellied. 

The saddle on the pot-bellied horse is constantly slipping for- 
ward to bruise the withers or the shouders On the herring-gutted 
horse it keeps sliding back, to the annoyance of the rider. 

The contents of the abdomen are held in pace by the abdominal 
tunic, a very powerful ligament and by otbei tendons and muste. 
This abdominal envelope should continue the lines of the ribs. The 
profile of the belly should slope gently downward from the sheath 
to the girth-place. 

The loins include the six lumbar vertebrae and their muscular 
covering. The region of the loins is commonly known as the 
coupling. 

If the ribs slope to the rear well, and the loin muscles are thick 
and strong, the horse is well coupled For saddle-horses, the coup- 
ling should be short and the muscles strong and thick. 

The curve of the profile of the horse's back — from withers to 
tail — should be, when viewed from the side, smooth and flattened 
(Figure 75). There should be no "jog" (Figure 75) in front of the 
haunch -bone in horses in good condition. Most horses in low con- 
dition show a slight interruption in the curve of the back at this 
point, due to the wasting away of the muscles filling in the angle 
between the last vertebra of the loins and the first of those of 
the croup. 

The hips should be well rounded andjiot toof prominent. 1 ! 'A 



116 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 







Figure 77. — Lenore, Seven-eighths Thoroughbred Hunter. 

Courtesy of Gerald T. Hanley, Esq. 



horse with too prominent, ragged hips is apt to strike and break 
them when going through narrow gates or doorways. When the 
point of the hip is broken, it is easily seen by the lack of symmetry, 
when viewed from the rear. The usefulness of the animal is not 
always impaired by such an accident, nor is he always made, even 
temporarily, lame by it. 

The diaphragm is the muscle that controls inspiration — the act 
of taking air into the lungs. When the air enters the lungs, the 
diaphragm is pressed against the contents of the abdomen, they 
in turn press against the abdominal tunic, and it, being fastened 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 



117 




W#»^S 






Figure 78. — Lenore in Action. 

Courtesy of Gerald T. Hanley, Esq. 



to the point of the hip, exerts a pull there at each breath. A broken 
hip, therefore, can not rest long enough to heal properly, and the 
symmetry of the part is always marred. 



Hg 'ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

The region between the hips, the loins, and the posterior ribs 
is called the flank (Figure 71). This should be well filled out and 
not too large. In the horse that is well ribbed up, there should be 
no more than room enough to lay the hand between the ribs and 
hip. A gauntness appears in the flank after great exertion, or when 
feeding or watering has been neglected. A horse that is losing 
condition shows it first in the flank. 

The croup should slope downward toward the tail but little and 
should be convex in profile, viewed either from the side or rear 
(Figures 73 and 75). Horses whose croups slope too much towards 
the rear are termed goose-rumped (Figure 72). Aside from being 
unsightly, a goose-rumped horse lacks muscular development where 
it is very necessary, since certain of the large muscles of the thigh 
form their attachment there. These muscles originate propulsion, 
and any lack of development or loss of leverage reacts directly on 
the strength and length of the animal's stride. The five vertebrae 
of the croup grow together early in the life of the horse. 

The dock is the tail, without its hair. 

The hunter shown on page 116 is a model. She has a perfect 
back and trunk. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



119 




CHAPTER IX. 



THE HIND LEG. 



HIP 



THIGH 



STIFLE 





The column of bones of the hind leg are named in Figure 79 
and the external regions in Figures 80 and 81. The bones from 

the hock down are 
named as in the front 
leg. 

The chief function 
of the hind leg is pro- 
pulsion ; it supports 
less weight than the 
front leg (in the pro- 
portion of three to 
five), and is less liable 
to suffer from the ef- 
fects of concussion. 
The thigh-bone artic- 
ulates with the pelvis 
at its lowest point, 
and slopes forward, 
downward, and out- 
ward to the stifle. It 
is deeply imbedded in 
muscles of great 
strength and mass, 
and its position and 
movements are entire- 
ly obscured by them. 
The thighs should be 
well filled up, viewed 
from behind, leaving 



GASK1 



H.QCK 




- J 



W, 



Figure 80. — A Well-Built Horse, from Behind. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



121 



no open space between the legs. The stifles should be slightly 
wider apart than the hips, to insure freedom of movement in the 
stride. 




Figure 81. — External Nomenclature of the Hind Leg. 
Ben Brush, Cavalry Type. 

The stifle, or patella, corresponds to the human knee-cap. Its 
function is to afford additional leverage to certain muscles that 
advance the leg. It lies in front of the stifle-joint, and is held in 
place by several ligaments. Dislocations of the patella are rare, 
but are much more frequent than dislocations of any other joint. 
A horse suffering from this dislocation is said to be stifled. 



122 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

The leg-bone, or tibia, lies between the stifle-joint and the 
hock. The lower part of the muscles of the tibia is termed the 
gaskin, and it is important for fast work that these muscles be well 
developed. The muscles of the thigh start the propulsion; it is 
accelerated bjr the upper muscles of the tibia, and the muscles of 
the gaskin give the final impulse to the stride. They are smaller 
and shorter than the upper muscles of the hind leg and their action 
correspondingly quicker. It is therefore important that their devel- 
opment be considerable. 

Aside from the rare dislocations of the patella, and fracture of 
the points of the hips, there are no common injuries to be looked 
for in the region of the hind leg, above the hock. This joint, how- 
ever, is very liable to be disabled 03^ an obscure disease, often dif- 
ficult to discover, and always, when existing, of a nature that makes 
the animal permanently unsound. This disease is bone spavin. 

The hock is a more complicated joint than the knee. It is 
composed of six bones, five of which lie between the tibia and the 
cannon-bone, and a sixth placed behind them to act as a lever for 
certain of the tendons of the leg. In Figure 82 the cannon-bone is 
the bone at the bottom of each drawing. The tibia, leg-bone, is 
entirely removed. It articulates with the upper front bone that is so 
deeply grooved in the cuts. The bone near the numbers (1, 2, 3> 
and 4), standing back of the others, is the sixth bone referred to, 
and is the bone that forms the prominence in rear of the hock. The 
true hock-joint is between the upper bone of the five and the leg- 
bone; most of the motion of the hock is about this joint, and it is 
seldom diseased. The other four bones have smaller motions among 
themselves, but their principal function is to lessen, by the elasticity 
of their cartilages, the shock of impact. They are shock-absorbers. 

The properly shaped hock is clean in its outline, with its angu- 
larities well defined. The point of the hock should be prominent, 
and the depressions in front of it should be pronounced ; there must 
be no puffiness about this joint. 

The bones are covered with membranes that secrete fluids 







-i 







Son rid bock. 



Owed s/)a vi/i 







..: 



Spa t'irt 



I 

SpCtVUL . I 



i 



Figure 82. — The Bones of the Hock. 



124 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



necessary for their building up and preservation. The cartilages 
between the bones possess most of the chemical elements of the 
bones themselves, except the lime and other salts that give the bones 
their rigidity and strength. When the membranes or cartilages are 
injured through any cause, inflammation sets in, and the functions of 

secretion are stim- 
ulated. As a con- 
sequence, more of 
the bone salts are 
secreted than are 
needed for the 
maintenance of the 
bone s, and the 
excess is deposited 
on the outside, in 
the form of rough 
nodules that invade 
the spaces needed 
for the proper 
working of the liga- 
ments and tendons 
of the joint, or in 
the tissues of the 
cartilages, which 
tnereby lose their 
elasticity and be- 
come bone. This 
deposit may go on 
until the joint is destroyed by the excess bony deposit cementing 
the bones together. 

In the hock-joint there is a great change in the direction of the 
energy developed in the propelling muscles, and everything con- 
nected with the joints should work smoothly to get the best results. 
Any strain due to excessive concussion is apt to set up inflammation 



QUITTOR 
FALSE QUARTES 




Figure 83. 



126 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



between the lowest bones of the hock and the head of the cannon- 
bone. This inflammation, if not stopped before the bony deposit 
begins, results in bone spavin. Its usual seat is shown opposite the 
upper turn of the letter S in the word "Seat," Figure 83. 

The usual treatment 
of a spavin, after the 
bony deposit has fair- 
ly begun, is to stim- 
ulate the deposit by 
artificial inflammation 
until the lowest bones 
are united to the can- 
non-bone; then to 
stop the inflammation. 
Such a spavin is said 
to be "cured," but 
it has been cured at 
the expense of the 
joint, which has been 
permanently destroy- 
ed. When the spavin 
occurs between the 
bones, no visible en- 
la rgment results at 
first, but distressing 
lameness, due to 
ulceration of the car- 
tilage, is caused, that 
is very difficult to locate. This is an occult spavin. 

A spavined horse goes truer after being warmed up Jf, after 
a sharp gallop, in which he travels true, he is allowed to stand lor 
thirty minutes, and then sharply galloped, he will, if spavined, go 
noticeably lame. This is a characteristic of the disease. 

If the existence of spavin is suspected, another test is to pick 




Figure 85. — Capped Hock and Lymphangitis. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 127 

up the foot and bend the hock well, holding the foot up for a minute 
or so. If the horse travels true immediately after, he may be as- 
sumed to be sound. 

Between most of the joints of animals are placed closed mem- 
branous sacs, called synovial bursse, filled with a clear, yellowish 
fluid, called synovial fluid, or joint oil. These sacs are to diminish 
friction in the joints. Enlargements of these bursas are called syno- 
vial enlargements, and are given different names in different parts 
of the horse's anatomy. About the pasterns, and at the knees, they 
are called wind-galls ; in front of the hock, bog spavin ; in rear of, 
and above it, thoroughpin. None of these enlargements are, unless 
very large or inflamed, causes of lameness. They indicate weakness 
or defects of conformation. 

Blood-spavin is an largement of a large vein running up the 
leg. It is usually caused by the pressure of a bog-spavin dam- 
ming the flow of the blood in the vein (Figure 84). 

Capped hock, like capped elbow, is, in its first stage, a blister 
(Figure 85). Its seat is the point of the hock. It is, when first 
formed, easily removed, causes no lameness, but points to bad 
stable habits, and is unsightly. 

A curb is a protuberance on the back of the hind leg, six inches 
or so below the point of the hock. It is caused by "a sprain of the 
tendon, which passes on the posterior of the hock, or of one of its 
sheaths, or of the strong ligament situated on the posterior border 
of the upper bone of the hock.''* 

It is shown by a bulging backwards of the posterior part of the 
hock, interrupting what should be a straight line between the point 
of the hock and the fetlock. 

The inflammation in a curb, when it first appears, should be 
subdued by cold applications, and the further treatment of it left 
to a veterinarian. 



*Page 349, "Diseases of the Horse," Bureau of Animal Industry, 1903. 



128 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

Curb is an unsoundness, and a permanent disfigurement. Its 
commonest cause is making a horse stop suddenly when at a rapid 
gait, thus throwing an excessive strain on the back ligaments of 
the hock. It is often found in old hunters. 

Lymphangitis is a disease of the lymph-ducts (small vessels 
carrying nourishment to the tissues), near the skin. It is mani- 
fested by an unsightly, permanent thickening of the skin. It is 
not, in its first steps, disabling, but is a serious blemish. 

Splints occur sometimes in the hind leg, but less often than in 
front. The pasterns of the hind leg slope less than those in front. 
They are more liable to ringbones than the front ones. Sidebones 
are very rare in the hind foot. 

Stringhalt is an involuntary jerking up of the hind leg (usu- 
ally), bending the diseased member more than the sound one. It 
presents many phases, sometimes showing at the walk only, some- 
times at the trot only, sometimes at all gaits. Its cause is unknown. 
It is very unsightly, is incurable, and usually increases with age. 

In conformation the hind leg should be powerful, without being 
clumsy. The croup should be concave, viewed from side or rear, 
and the hips not prominent. The tail should be carried away from 
the buttocks, and should not prolong the curve of the croup. It 
is noteworthy that a horse possessing courage and mettle always 
carries his tail well up until utterly exhausted. When his tail drops, 
while he is in motion, it is a warning to rest him. 

Viewed from the rear, there should be a slight concavity be- 
tween the hips and the stifle, and the stifles should be slightly wider 
apart than the hips. If the hips are wider than the stifles, and prom- 
inent, they are said to be ragged. From the stifle to the hocks, 
the legs should converge, and the curve of the gaskin should be 
clean-cut and pronounced (Figure 80). The tibia should be — or 
should appear to be — very long, and the hocks low, to get great 
power. The upper bone of the hock — the os calcis — should be 
pronounced. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



129 



For saddle-horses, the hind legs should be " under the croup" — 
that is, a line dropped from the point of the croup should pass 
along the cannon, from hock to fetlock, or near it. The legs, from 
the hock to the ground, should be parallel and straight. If the 
hocks are nearer together than the fetlocks, the horse is cow-hocked ; 
if the hocks are wider apart than the fetlocks, he is said to be open 
behind. When the cannon slopes to the front from hock to pastern- 
the horse is sickle-hocked. All of these conditions are objectionable. 

The hind legs are less liable to injury than the front ones in 
saddle-horses not trained to jump, in cavalry-horses, and in polo, 
ponies, while in hunters and in harness-horses the hocks are the 
most vulnerable places. 




— By permission of the 1914 "Rasp. 



CHAPTER X. 



horsemen, in 



OPER PASTERN 
JOINT 



THE HORSE'S FOOT. 

The foot of the horse, from a standpoint of comparative anat- 
omy, includes everything below the knee or hock. Practical^, 
speaking of the horse's foot, refer only to the hoof 
and its contents. The hoof cor- 
responds in its structure to the 
nail on the toes of other animals. 

The foot is one of the most 
important parts of the horse to 
study, because it is the seat of 
so many disabling diseases, prac- 
tically all of which can be pre- 
vented by proper care and use. 

The foot is a very complex 
member. It is built around three 
bones : the coffin-bone, the navic- 
ular-bone, and the lower pastern- 
bone. 

The coffin-bone, the lowest 
bone of all, lies wholly within 
the hoof. It is wedge-shaped, 
concave on its under surface, and 
cylindrical on the upper sides of 
its anterior and lateral faces. In 




NAVICULAR 



(LOWER PASThRN 
I JOINT 



NAVICULAR 
JOINT 



COFFIN BONE 



Figure 86. — Nomenclature 
the Bones of the Foot. 



rear it branches into two parts, called the wings of the coffin-bone. 
Immediately above the coffin-bone, and resting on its highest 
part, rises the lower-pastern- or coronary-bone; and in the angle 
behind the joint, formed by the coffin- and lower pastern-bone, fits 
the navicular-bone. These three bones are bound together by sev- 
eral short, strong ligaments. Two wide and thick pieces of cartilage, 
continuing the wings of the coffin-bone, called the lateral cartilages 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



131 



Cannon lone 



Sesamoid bone. 



Upper pastern 
bone 



of the coffin-bone, fit in behind the three bones, between them and 
the walls of the hoof, and act as springs to keep the bones from 

plunging too 
violently into 
the wedge- 
shaped interi- 
or of the hoof, 
whenever the 
foot strikes 
the ground. 

A large wide 
tendon fast- 
ens itself to 
the under side 
of the coffin- 
bone, bends 
around the 
roller-shaped 
navicular- 
bone, passes 
behind the 
coronary- 
bone, and on 
up to its mus- 
cular develop- 
ment above 
the knee or 
hock. This is 
of the leg. Another 
the coffin-bone to pull 
Both are well shown in 



Plantar 
cushion 



froa 




Lower pastern 
bone 



Coffin 
bone 



Figure 87. — The Foot in Cross-Section 



the principal flexor — pulling back — tendon 
broad tendon is fastened to the front of 
it forward. This is an extensor tendon. 
Figure 87. 

Under the flexor tendon and the lateral cartilages is placed a 
soft, highly elastic cushion, called the plantar cushion, that, by its 



132 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

compression between the sole and frog of the hoof on its under side 
and the tendon and lateral cartilages above it, acts to soften the 
shock of impact. 

Enveloping all the structures above enumerated is the fleshy 
continuation of the skin, much changed in appearance from that 
above the hoof. This covering is nighty vascular — that is, it is 
abundantly supplied with nerves and with blood and other vessels 
that supply the foot. The upper border of this covering is called 
the coronary band, and along the upper border of this band is an- 
other band, called the perioplic ring. Below the coronary band the 
fleshy covering of the foot is covered with a series of little ridges, 
called the sensitive laminae. They fit into corresponding depres- 
sions in the inner surface of the wall. These depressions in the 
wall are called the insensitive laminae. 

On the plantar surface, the fleshy envelope is called the velvety 
tissue. 

The hoof is the nail of the horse. It is composed of three 
parts — the wall, the sole, and the frog. The wall includes all that 
portion of the horny box that is visible when the foot is on the 
ground. The wall is divided into three regions: the toe, in front; 
the quarters, on the sides; and the heels, in rear. At the heels 
the wall doubles back, towards the center of the foot, forming the 
bars. The wall is thickest at the toe and is gradually thinner 
towards the heels, where it thickens again to form the bars. The 
outer face of the wall is composed of a great number of filaments, 
similar to hair in their growth and composition, compacted firmly 
together with a natural glue, and growing downward from the cor- 
onary band. It is covered with a sort of natural varnish that is 
secreted by the perioplic ring. The function of this varnish is to 
retain the moisture of the horn, which shrinks on drying and is 
liable to crack. The interior face of the wall is composed of the 
insensitive laminae. 

The sole is a horny plate, fitting into the wall, strongly ce- 
mented to it and with a Y-shaped opening in the back that is lined, 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



133 



for two-thirds the distance from the heels, by the bars above re- 
ferred to. The ground surface of the sole is arched so that, in its 
natural state, it does not come into contact with the ground. 

The frog is a soft, horny wedge, let into the angle of the bars 
and sole, and lying under the plantar cushion. 

It is quite deeply cleft at 
the heels into two parts that 
unite towards the angle of 
the V. 

In its natural, healthy state 
the frog rests on the ground to 
act as a stay against slipping. 
For this purpose a healthy 
frog is much better than any 
artificial arrangement. 

The fore foot is rounder, 
more spread out, less concave, 
and a little wider than the 
hind foot. Its heels are closer 
together, and the angle of its 
wall is usually more oblique 
than the hind foot. 

The hoof-wall grows down- 
ward from the coronary band. The new growth is always at the 
top, pushing the old growth downward. This old growth must be 
removed, either by natural wear, in the unshod horse, or by the 
blacksmith when the horse is shod. The sole and frog grow in the 
direction of their own thickness, and surplus growth scales off, 
unassisted. 

It requires about eight months to grow a new hoof. This 
growth of wall is faster at the toe than at the heel, and in the un- 
shod horse the wear is greater at the toe ; consequently the wall 
is maintained at the proper height. 




Hoof 



Coronary 
band 



Horny frog 



Figure 88. — Hoof, Frog, Coronary 
Band, and Ankle. 



134 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



The hoof grows faster during a moist, warm season, if the 
animal is in good health, than it does in dry or cold weather, or 
when the horse is debilitated. The hoof often shows the effect of 
the more favorable season by a thickened ring in the horn. Such 
rings, when of healthy growth, are called grass rings. 

When the foot strikes the ground, the tendency is to force the 




Figure 89. — The Hoof. 



coffin-bone down into its wedge-shaped seat. This is prevented 
by the intimate union between the sensitive and insensitive laminae 
(whose folds, if spread to their complete development, would cover 
more than a square yard), and by the elastic resistance of the frog, 
the plantar cushion, the flexor tendon, and the lateral cartilages. 
The sensitive and insensitive laminae not only dovetail into 
each other in the direction of their length, but they are also pro- 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



135 



vided with multiple barbs that also interlock and resist any sliding 
tendency. All these elastic media unite in receiving the shock of 
impact and transmit it gradually through the bones and tendons 
of the legs and to the muscles above for its final decomposition. 

The foot itself actually spreads out slightly, and the concavity 
of the sole is reduced at the moment of impact. For this reason, 
except when necessary to prevent the undue spreading of the heels 
while the horse is in motion, shoes should be left open at the heels. 




Figure 90. — The Plantar Surface of the Foot. 



The plantar surface of the foot is shown in Figure 90, after 
it has been levelled off to receive the shoe. The frog and its cleft 
are clearly seen. The doubling back of the wall to form the bars 
shows plainly at the heels. The line of demarcation between the 
sole and wall is shown in the dark line paralleling the wall at the 
toe. The position of this line also shows the thickness of the sole. 

A saddle-horse should not have too large a foot. A large foot 
is characteristic of a slow, lymphatic animal. Its horn is usually 



136 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

less dense than in a smaller foot on a horse of the same size. Such 
a horse is more liable to diseases of the feet when the horse is called 
on to do fast work. Large feet belong properly to draft-horses. 

The foot should not be too small, for its smallness will usually 
be at the expense of thickness of wall. 

The feet should be of the same size, allowing for the difference 
in shape in fore and hind feet, and the angle of the wall at the toe 
should be about forty-five degrees, getting gradually more nearly 
vertical as it approaches the heels. 

If the angle at the toe is much less than forty-five degrees, the 
horse is said to be flat-footed. This is usually accompanied by a 
flat sole and a predisposition to disease. 

A horse that toes in is said to be pigeon-toed, and out-bowed 
if he toes out. If one foot points to the right or left, while the other 
one is straight, he is club-footed. 

A vertical plane, paralleling the axis of the horse, and cutting 
the foot at the toe, should split the foot in half, and contain the 
axis of the leg. In other words, the forearm and cannon should 
be straight and vertical, and the foot should be set squarely to the 
front on the same vertical axis. The outer lines of the two forearms 
usually converge towards the knee, due to muscular development. 
The column of bones should be straight. 



CHAPTER XI. 



DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 



As we have seen, there is seldom reason to suspect disease in 
the horse in the shoulder or thigh, and only occasionally in the 
elbow, forearm, stifle, or gaskin. The knee, the hock, and the can- 
nons are quite often, and 
the pasterns and feet are 
especially liable to be the 
seats of disease. In the 
feet, no part is exempt. 
Beginning at the 
plantar surface, we find 
av ery common disease 
in inflammation of the 
frog, called, commonly, 
thrush. 

Thrush is a disease of 
filth and neglect. The 
salts of urine have an es- 
pecially bad influence on 
horses' feet, and those 
animals that are allowed 
to stand in mud-puddles 
made of the clay of their 
stalls mixed with urine 
are very apt to have this 
disease. It also comes from subjecting the animals to extremes 
of dryness and moisture, from hard work on rough, stony ground, 
or from being continually working or standing in mud. 

The disease first shows itself by a constant moisture and foul 
odor in the cleft of the frog. If neglected, a thin watery discharge 




Figure 91. — Thrush and Contracted Heels. 



138 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 



follows, changing into a thick, very offensive discharge; in this 
stage the frog becomes rapidly destroyed. 

The treatment is cleanliness and the removal of the exciting 
cause. This will usually be sufficient in the first stages. In the 
late progress of the disease it resists treatment stubbornly, and 
needs most careful attention. In the absence of a veterinarian, 
the foot should be thoroughly cleaned, the ragged parts of the frog 
cut away. The diseased parts should then be dusted with calomel 
or iodoform, and the cleft packed with oakum. The foot should 
then be bandaged, to keep out the dirt. If the horse must be used 
during the day, remove the bandage while the horse is at work, 
renewing the treatment after the day's work is over. This treatment 
must continue until the frog is sound. 

One of the serious conditions attending this disease is that it 
is not a cause of lameness until it has reached a very serious stage, 
and so may remain unnoticed until in quite an advanced stage. 

Canker is a disease of the sole and frog that is of germ origin. 
The canker-germ usually does not attack a sound foot, but is found 
to be a sequel to thrush or to a punctured wound of the foot. If 
it originates in a puncture, it is noticed that the wound does not 
heal, but becomes more and more aggravated. If it occurs inde- 
pendently of an injury, it is first noticed by its offensive odor, the 
discharge from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting away 
of tho sole. Surgery is the best treatment. 

A corn is a blood-blister in the living tissues of the sole. It 
is caused by a bruise to that part of the sole between the bars and 
the wall, where the sole is thinnest. If the horse goes lame in one 
leg, without apparent cause, his shoe should be pulled, and the 
seat of corn pared out. If, instead of showing white, the sole shows 
a discolored spot, with reddish streaks — inflamed capillaries — radi- 
ating from it, the trouble is from a corn. The treatment is to cut 
out the sole immediately over the corn, to keep the shoe from 
bearing on it. 

The fore feet are almost exclusively subject to corns. While 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 139 

in motion, the horse strikes the ground first with the heels of his 
fore feet and with the toes of his hind feet. 

If the seat of corn is repeatedly bruised, as is the case when 
the shoe is left on too long, and the heel bears directly on the seat 
of corn, it often suppurates, and the inflammation spreads to the 
velvety tissue and the laminae This is an uncommon and extremely 
serious phase of the disease. 

A bruised sole is a similar trouble, resulting from a severe 
blow to the sole. It is very difficult to locate, and can only be 
cured by rest, and, when suppuration results, by surgery. 

Contracted heels is a common disease among all classes of 
horses, but especially among saddle-horses. It is a result of dis- 
eases that cause the destruction of the frog, or of a wasting away 
of the frog from disuse, as in the case with horses habitually shod 
with calks. The heels, robbed of the support of the healthy frog, 
pinch in together (Figure 91). The only cure is to restore the frog, 
and usually this is impossible. 

Cracked heels, or scratches, is a disease similar to the familiar 
chapped hands. Its location is in the tender skin over the heels 
and under the fetlock. It is easily recognized by longitudinal cracks 
in the skin, showing red under at first. If neglected, the fluids that 
escape will dry and form thick crusts on each side of the cracks. 
The cracks often become infected and suppurate. Similar cracks 
at the bend of the knee and hock, called, respectively, malanders 
and salanders, sometimes appear, and, in certain badly neglected 
cases, these regions unite, presenting a most loathsome aspect. 
Scratches are almost always caused by filth, neglect, or bad treat- 
ment, and are cured by cleanliness and dryness. Extreme cases 
need expert treatment. 

A good treatment for the first stages of the disease is to bathe 
the part until it is clean, dry it well, and apply carbolized vaseline 
locally. This dressing must be frequently changed, as dust ad- 
heres to it and, if left on after it becomes caked with dust, it may 
do more harm than good. The patient must be rested, as the 
cracks open with each step the horse takes. 



140 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

Horses that are tied by so long a rope that they can tangle 
their hind (very rarely the fore) foot in it, will usually struggle to 
free themselves, and often seriously chafe the tender skin under the 
fetlock; such a chafe is termed a rope-burn. Because of their po- 
sition and the difficulty of keeping the part at rest, they are tedious 
to heal, and, when healed, leave unsightly scars. Rope-burns are 
merely blemishes when they heal without causing stiffness in the 
action. On account of their unsightliness, it is best to prevent 
them by watching horses that are picketed out very carefully until 
they have learned how to avoid burning themselves. In the sta- 
bles, care should be taken that a horse is tied short enough that 
he can not get his hind foot over the rope. 

Brushing, cutting, or interfering are names given to indicate an 
injury to the fetlock of either a fore or hind foot, done by striking 
the fetlock with the opposite foot. They are caused by improper 
shoeing, weariness, or defective action, and are prevented by proper 
shoeing or by the use of boots or so-called interfering straps. 

Forging, or clicking, is the striking of the under side of the 
shoe or the sole of the front foot by the toe of the hind hoof or shoe 
on the same side. It is caused usually by defective action. The 
front foot is slow in recovering from a stride and is struck at the 
instant it is most bent to the rear. The theory has been advanced 
that the horse does it willfully, because he likes to hear the click 
as the shoes come together. It is corrected by special shoeing. 

Coronitis is the name for inflammation of the coronary band. 
This disease is usually the accompaniment of some other disease 
• of the foot. 

Wounds or bruises of the coronet are known by the general 
name of treads, because they come usually from being stepped on. 
Treads are dangerous when they affect the extensor tendon, or 
when they injure the joint between the coffin-bone and the coronary- 
bone. A tread must be kept very clean, and infection must be very 
carefully guarded against by the use of antiseptic dressings — as 
iodoform, calomel, or carbolized vaseline. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



141 



If the tread is se- 
rious enough to de- 
stroy part of the 
coronary band, the 
part of the hoof 
that was supplied 
by the destroyed 
part fills in, in an 
irregular way, from 
the sides and from 
beneath, and a mal- 
formation called 
false quarter re- 
sults. 

A puncture is a 
wound to the foot, 
caused by an ail or 
other sharp object 
being driven into 
the sensitive parts 
of the foot. 

Any infection 
within the rim of 
the hoof, resulting in suppuration, forms an abscess that can not 
drain downward. As the pus accumulates it is forced upward usual- 
ly until the sinus reaches the rim of the coronary band, where an 
open sore results. Such a sore, a fistula, is called a quittor. Fre- 
quently, in the history of quittors, the sole is finally penetrated by 
the pus, and natural drainage results. A quittor is almost always 
the result of neglect, and in its most frequent form is the result of 
a neglected tread. 

Cracks in the hoof running up and down are termed sand- 
cracks when in the toe — usually in the hind feet, and quarter-cracks 
when on the inside — usually on the front feet. The outside of the 



WWseatB 


SPAVIN 


|e«|L • ■HB 




% iriB 




QUITTOR '* j y§H|iP 
FALSE QUART^g 


- 



Figure 92. — Quittor and False Quarter. 



142 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

feet is seldom cracked. Cracks are usually caused by defective 
shoeing, by excessive dryness, or as a result of treads. 

Sidebones are the ossifications resulting from inflamed lateral 
cartilages. These cartilages help receive and distribute the shock of 
impact. Inflammation causes bony deposits to replace the cartil- 
aginous tissue. These deposits often grow to be noticeably large. 

Navicular disease is the result of an injury to the navicular 
bone, or to its coverings or attachments, that either fractures the 
bone or sets up destructive inflammation in it. 

The navicular-bone is a little roller-shaped bone, lying in the 
posterior angle between the lower pastern-bone and the coffin-bone. 
The tendon perforans is fastened to the under side of the coffin- 
bone. It bends over the navicular-bone, passes behind the pastern, 
and, bending again over the sesamoids, goes upward to its muscular 
development above the knee. 

This tendon transmits much of the shock of impact. The 
navicular-bone, pinched in between it and the other bones of the 
foot, is subjected to tremendous pressure at every stride. Its sur- 
face must be smooth and well lubricated in order that the tendon 
perforans may slip smoothly over it, in response to the action of 
the muscles controlling it. If the pressure of the tendon is too 
great for the health of the bone, it breaks, or its envelope becomes 
inflamed and its structure changes. Its surface becomes rough and 
chafes the sheath of the tendon, and, as the bone is inaccessible 
to the surgeon, the evil done is irremediable. Navicular disease is 
incurable and very painful. In order to render the horse uncon- 
scious of this pain, and so prolong its usefulness until a complete 
break-down occurs, a portion of the sensory nerve supplying the 
foot is removed by an operation called neurotomy. "In the early 
stages of navicular disease the symptoms are generally very obscure. 
When the disease begins in inflammation of the navicular bone, the 
animal, while at rest, ' points' the affected foot a time before any 
lameness is seen. While at work, he apparently travels as well as 
ever, but when placed in the stable, one foot is set out in front 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



143 



of the other, resting on the 
toe, with fetlock and knee 
flexed. After a time, if the 
case is closely watched, the 
animal takes a few lame steps 
while at work, but the lame- 
ness disappears as suddenly as 
it came, and the driver doubts 
if the animal was really lame 
at all. Later on the patient 
has a lame spell, which may 
last during the greater part of 
a day, but the next morning 
it is gone ; he leaves the stable 
all right, but goes lame again 
during the day. In time he 
has a severe attack of lame- 
ness, which may last a week 
or more, when a remission 
takes place, and it may be 
weeks or months before an- 
other attack supervenes. 
Finally, he becomes constantly 
lame, and the more he is used, 
the greater the lameness."* 

The polo-pony pointing his 
toe in Figure 94 went through 
the phases described above exactly. The first long attack came on 
during the early spring, and he recovered from it before the polo 
season opened. He played a fast game every fine day during the 
season. His second attack came on during the next winter and 
lasted several weeks. The following spring he played well for two 
months, and then went permanently lame. 
Diseases of the Horse, 




Figure 93. 



*Page 410, 



Bureau of Animal Industry, 1903. 



144 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

Navicular disease does not attack the hind feet. (There are but 
two cases on record, according to Moller, an eminent German vet- 
erinarian.) 

A ringbone (Figure 95) is a bony growth on the pastern. It is 
not a disease in itself, but, like bone spavin, is a result of inflam- 
mation in bone-producing issues. Ringbones are caused by blows, 
sprains, overwork, too fast work on hard roads, jumping, and the 
like. Horses whose pasterns are too short and upright are more 
liable to the disease that causes ringbone than those with long, elastic 
pasterns. 

The first symptom is lameness. A puff, hot and harder than 
the ordinary wind-gall, is noticeable. The ringbones that develop 
under the extensor tendon or near the navicular joint are the most 
distressing, and are almost sure to produce incurable lameness. 
Those on the side of the bone, or high up on the upper pastern, 
are sometimes called false ringbones, and do not always cause 
lameness. A ringbone is difficult to diagnose in its early stages, 
but in its full growth can be easily seen and felt. The treatment 
for ringbone is the same as for spavin. If the ringbone interferes 
with the action of the extensor tendon or the navicular joint, re- 
covery is impossible. A horse suffering from ringbone in front 
points his foot by resting it on the heel. 

Founder, or laminitis, is inflammation of the sensitive laminse 
of the foot. Like all inflammation in soft tissues, it is accompanied 
by congestion. The excess of blood fluids causes great pressure to 
be brought on the outer face of the coffin-bone, sufficient in very 
severe attacks to force that bone through the sole, causing dropped 
sole. In acute attacks the horse gives every evidence of suffering 
great pain. He is very lame, the pulse and temperature rise rap- 
idly. He breathes rapidly, with nostrils open and heaving sides. 
He refuses food, but drinks copiously. The coronets and pasterns 
are hot and dry, and the artery of the fetlock throbs noticeably. 

If only one front foot is affected, he relieves that foot of as 
much weight as possible by advancing it and resting it on its heel. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



145 



When urged forward, he either carries the lame foot in the air, 
hopping from the other, or he puts it carefully forward on its heel 
and quickly advances the other of the pair. He has great difficulty 
in turning towards the side of the lame foot. 

If both front feet are affected, the animal will be very hard 
to move. He advances by cautiously planting the fore feet and 

then quickly brings his 
hind feet well forward. 
When standing, he rests 
his head on the manger 
or hangs it down nearly 
to the floor. * 

If the hind feet are af- 
fected, they are planted 
well to the front to bring 
the weight on the heels, 
and the fore feet are car- 
ried back, supporting as 
much of the weight as 
possible. It is extremely 
difficult for a horse 
foundered behind to 
move at all. All four 
feet are seldom affected 
at the same time. 

In mild cases the at- 
tacks last but a day or 
two. More serious cases 
The more often the cases 




Inflamed lat- 
eral cartilc 



Figure 95. 



run their course in one to two weeks 

recur, the longer will be the period of recovery. 

The causes of founder are many and apparently unrelated 



*The discussion of founder is condensed from Dr. A. A. Holcombe's article 
on Diseases of the Fetlock, Ankle, and Foot, "Diseases of the Horse." p. 417 
et seq. 



146 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



Concussion is a prolific cause ; over-exertion when tired, and ex- 
haustion, are equally prolific. Rapid changes of temperature — sud- 
den cooling after becoming very hot, either by watering the horse 
copiously, or by standing him uncovered in a draft— is a very com- 
mon cause and the one most easily prevented. Neglect of " cooling 
out" a hot horse in summer might cause laminitis; in the winter 
the same neglect would be more apt to cause congestion of the 
lungs, followed by pneumonia. 

Chronic laminitis is the result of continued attacks of laminitis. 
There is always fever in the feet. Due to the inflammation, more 
horn is deposited than the hoof needs; it is of poor quality, and 
the hoof becomes misshapen and scaly. Rings, showing this mor- 
bid growth, appear in the hoof. These rings usually correspond to 
each acute attack. They are roughly parallel to the coronet, as 
shown in Figure 96. The altered position of the coffin-bone is also 







Figure 96. — Foundered Feet 




ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



147 



shown there. These rings are easily distinguished from the grass 
rings in a healthy foot, referred to in the last chapter. 

Seedy toe is a cavity in the horn, usually in the toe, due to 
a loss of secreting power in the laminae. It is usually a result of 
founder. 

The anatomy of a horse is such that the muscles of the foreleg 
are at rest when he is standing squarely on both front legs. This 
is not true behind, where he supports his weight alternately on 
each leg, resting the other on its toe. 

A horse that does not stand squarely on a front foot is said 
to point it. If he points it on the toe, the trouble will be found in 
the flexor tendon, or on some tissue that it works against, not in 
the laminae. Hence, a horse pointing on his toe is suspected of 
navicular disease or strained back tendons. A horse having corns 
would point on the toe. If he rests it on the heel, it is to relieve 
pain in the laminae or under the extensor tendon, and he is suspected 
of founder or ringbone. 




— By permission of the 1914 "Rasp.' 



CHAPTER XII. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF HORSESHOEING FOR HORSES 
WITH ORDINARY FEET.* 

As has been shown in Chapter X., the horse renews his hoof 
in about eight months; the surplus growth of the horn of the wall 
must be removed, either by the wear resulting from the natural 

movements of the horse, 
or by artificial means, 
while the surplus growth 
of the sole and frog scales 
off of itself when no long- 
er needed. 

The horn of the horse's 
hoof, while quite enough 
protection for sensitive 
tissues beneath while the 
horse is at pasture, is not 
sufficient while he is at 
work, and the artificial 
protection of the horse- 
shoe is necessary. 

The shoe protects the 
wall from wear, and con- 
sequently is carried by 
the wall, in the latter' s 
growth, away from the sole. The wall grows much faster at the toe 
than at the heel, dragging the shoe forward slightly, and gradually 
changing the angle the coffin-bone makes with the pastern-bone. 

*This chapter is adapted, by permission, from Fitzwygram's " Horses and 
Stables," 1901 edition, making only such changes as are demanded by our 
Cavalry Drill Regulations. 




Figure 97. — Appearance of a Shoe 
Left on Too Long. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



149 



This has the effect of diminishing the work of the extensor tendon 
at the expense of the flexor tendon. Not only is this equilibrium 
destroyed by leaving the shoe on too long, but the heel of the shoe 
gradually bears more and more on the seat of corn, rendering lame- 
ness from corns extremely liable. 

Experience teaches that four weeks is the safe limit to leave 




Figure 98. — Shoe on Too Long. 

the shoe on without re-seating it. This gives importance to the first 
rule in the care of the horse's feet: 

All shoes to be removed at the end of a month's wear. 

Figure 98 shows a shoe that has been on about seven weeks. 
The frog has shrunken and the shoe is brought forward. The worn 



250 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

appearance of the toe would lead to the belief that the horse is a 
stumbler. 

All shoes have the fault of preventing the natural expansion 
and contraction of the foot, due to the elastic action of its tissues. 
To restore this elasticity and to rest the foot, the following rule 
should always, when possible, be observed: 

After shoes are removed, the horse should, if practicable, be 
left barefoot for twenty-four to forty-eight hours. 

Proper use, proper feeding, and proper shoeing understood, no 
practice will prolong the period of usefulness of a horse, or do as 
much to prevent lameness, as this one. 

Any stableman of intelligence can be shown in an hour how 
to take off shoes properly. It is an easy matter, the day before a 
horse is to be shod, for the stableman to take off his shoes and pinch 
off the surplus wall. Even if he must be shod the next morning, 
the rest over night will do him much good. 

Before removing the old shoe, each clench should be carefully 
and fully raised (Figure 99). 

The careful and complete raising of each clench is necessary 
to avoid injury to the crust. If the clench is not raised, a part of 
the crust may be torn away as the nail is drawn, and the wall 
weakened by so much. 

After raising the clenches, the blacksmith next loosens the shoe 
with the pincers, beginning at the heel. When all the nails but 
the front one on one side are loosened, he begins at the other heel, 
working towards the toe again. Having loosened all the nails but 
the front ones, he seizes the shoe at one of these nails and pries 
towards the heel. If the blacksmith finds the shoe coming off 
"hard, " he should examine it to see that two or more of the nails 
have not been driven obliquely, in which case there is danger of 
pulling out a wedge-shaped portion of the crust. In such a case 
the nails must be pulled separately. 

The seat of the newly-set shoe is on the wall at the level of the 
sole, bearing slightly on the sole. This surface must be prepared 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



151 



most carefully for the shoe by levelling it off so that it is a per- 
fect plane and at right angles to the axis of the foot. In lower- 
ing the wall the following 
rule should be strictly ad- 
hered to: 

The wall to be lowered 
to the level of the sole with 
the pincers, never with a 
knife. 

A line can be followed 
better and easier with cut- 
ting pincers than with a 
knife. More than that, the 
proper use of the pincers 
insures that the wall will be 
brought down evenly to the 
sole all around. 

In the mechanical part of 
the shoeing it is of the high- 
est degree important that 
the shoe be put on so that 
the foot will rest squarely 
on the ground, and also that 
the normal height at heel and toe be maintained. The blacksmith, 
after he has levelled the foot to the sole all around, should put the 
foot on the floor and verify its bearing before going further. He 
should also carefully observe any unusual thing in the conformation 
of the foot. 

Rasp the wall down level with the sole. 

This is to remove the irregularities left by the pincers, and 
insure for the sole a bearing surface on both sole and wall. When 
the surface has been made level, blunt the sharp outer edge of the 
crust with the rasp. 

It has been advocated that the elasticity of the horse's foot 




Figure 99. — Clenches Raised. 



152 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

is increased by cutting away the bars — " opening out the heels/' 
it is called. This practice is common enough to make necessary 
the following rule : 

The bars are not to be cut away. 

The bars are Nature's support against contraction of the heels 
and must on no account be cut away. Nor must the sole in the 
space between the bars and the wall be cut away. This filling-in 
of the interspace acts as a support to the bars and wall against 
contraction of the heels. The practice of opening the heels can not 
be too severely condemned. 

The frog, if healthy, is not to be pared or even trimmed. 

The frog, like the sole, requires only to be let alone. It is 
Nature's pad, or cushion, to lessen concussion in the upper structures 
when the foot comes to the ground. It can never grow too big. 
It thrives on concussion. If pared, and thereby deprived of use, 
it dwindles away. 

The frog, when well developed, also acts as a stay against 
slipping. A good sound frog is a better stay than calks. If the 
frog has become injured and is ragged, the ragged parts only should 
be carefully cut away. 

Do not burn out a seat for the shoe with a hot shoe. 

The seat of the shoe may be lightly touched with the hot shoe 
to mark its inequalities. The marked portions should then be 
rasped down. To burn out a seat for the shoe dries up the horn 
of sole and wall, kills living cells that are necessary to the strength 
of the hoof, and causes the sole to dry out and shrink away from 
the shoe. Jt is a bad practice that is resorted to only by lazy 
horseshoers. It should not be tolerated. 

Figure 100 shows a foot that has been prepared for its shoe in 
a very common way, but in a way that violates the last three prin- 
ciples. The sole has been pared out, the wall cut down too much, 
the frog trimmed, the bars cut away, and, to complete the iniquity, 
the seat for the new shoe has been burned out. 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 



153 



All of these abuses are 
easy of detection, except 
the last, by a very casual 
inspection of the shod horse. 

All shoes should be flat 
to the sole, not seated in. 

Make the shoe to fit the 
foot, neither longer nor 
smaller nor wider than the 
wall, except at the heels, 
where it may be not to ex- 
ceed one-eighth of an inch 
wider than the crust. This 
last provision is to cause the 
shoe to keep its bearing as 
the growth of the wall brings 
it forward. 

Five nails are sufficient, 
three on the outside and 
two on the inside. 

The front nail on each 
side should be in the an- 
terior portion of the quar- 
ter, and the other nails 
should equally divide the 
distance to the heels. This 
rule is a flexible one. 

When a nail has been driven, the point should immediately 
be twisted off, to prevent possible blemishes to the other feet in 
case the horse should struggle. After the nails are all driven, the 
clenches are turned slightly and evened with the rasp, to make them 
the same length. A slight groove is then made on the under side 
of the clenches in the horn and the clenches bent into the groove. 
Clenches should not be rasped after being turned down. 




Figure 100. 

Sole pared out, bars cut away, seat for 

shoe burned in with a hot shoe. 



X54 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

They should be carefully flattened with the hammer. Any 
riling, in addition to injuring the enamel, lessens the power of 
holding. 

Except to make this groove for the clenches, the rasp should 
not be used on the outside wall of the foot. Roughness in the 
clenches can be smoothed by light taps of the hammer. Rasping 
the outside of the hoof removes the enamel that is there to keep the 
foot from losing its moisture by evaporation; in the subsequent 
drying and shrinking the hoof is often cracked. 

The shoe should be neither too large nor too small, but should 
fit the outside of the hoof perfectly in front of the rearmost nails. 
In rear of these nails the shoe should gradually broaden, to keep 
the ends from bearing on the seat of corn as the shoe is brought 
forward, and to leave room for, cleaning the hoof between the frog 
and wall. 

If the shoe is too small (the most common fault), the black- 
smith will trim the foot down to fit the shoe, a process called dump- 
ing, and thereby greatly weaken the wall. The nails, too, are driven 
too near the sensitive tissues, and there is danger of pricking. Even 
if the nails do not actually reach the sensitive laminae, if driven too 
near it, they will, by their pressure, irritate the laminae and cause 
lameness. Such a foot is said to be nail-bound. 

The other extreme (having the shoe too large) is also liable 
to be injurious, because of the danger that the shoe may be stepped 
on, or otherwise dragged off, or that the horse may stumble. 

Be constantly on the watch for loose shoes, and have them 
properly removed as soon as discovered. 

If the shoe is cast, nails are apt to be left in the hoof or a por- 
tion of the hoof may be pulled off with the shoe. When -\ shoe is 
removed, have the other one of its pair, front or rear, removed 
also, unless the shoe can be soon replaced. The horse travels and 
walks better when his legs are the sime kmg-~h. 

What to look for in a newly-shod horse : 

1 . That there is no mark of the rasp on the hoof. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



155 



2. That the sole has not been pared out. 

3. That the frog, unless it was ragged, has not been trimmed. 

4. That the bars have not been cut away. 

5. That the seat of the shoe has not been burned out, 

6. That the nails have been put in as regularly as the state 

of the crust will admit of. 

7. That the 
nails have 
been brought 
out one inch 
a b O'v e the 
shoe, in the 
normal foot. 
In flat feet 
they should 
appear a little 
less than an 
inch from the 
shoe. 

8. That the 
shoes are 
neither larger 
nor smaller 
than the wall, 
nor longer than 
the hoof. 

9. That the feet 

are the same QU „ Figure 101 

fenoe too small; wall and clenches rasped away. 
length. Note marks of the rasp. 

1 0. That the nails fit the nail-holes accurately. 

1 1 . That the clenches have not been rasped after being turned 

down. 

The following extract from the article by John W. Adams, 
A.B., V.M.D., found on pages 565-569, "Diseases of the Horse," 









k i 


la ** iSHBHSHH 


fH 




| 


'*' ■'»£$■ 








, / * 


" <^g 




i; 


Hi 1 








[ 



156 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



gives an outline of the properties of horseshoes, and the special 
peculiarities of the chief classes of shoes : 

"The shoe is an artificial base of support, by no means ideal, 
because it interferes, to a greater or less degree, with the physiology 
of the foot, but indispensable, except for horses at slow work on 
soft ground. Since a proper surface of support is of the greatest 
importance in preserv- 
ing the health of the 
feet and legs, it is nec- 
essary to consider the 
various forms of shoes 
best adapted to the 
different forms of 
hoofs. Certain prop- 
erties are common to 
all shoes and may 
b e considered first. 
They are form, width, 
thickness, length, sur- 
faces, borders, fuller- 
ing, nail-holes, and „ 1AO 
. ' Figure 102. 
clips. Shoe too large; nails brought out too low down. 

"Form. — Every shoe should have the form of the hoof for 
which it is intended, provided the hoof retains its proper shape; 
but for every hoof that has undergone change of form we must 
endeavor to give the shoe that form which the foot originally pos- 
sessed. Front shoes and hind shoes, rights and lefts, should be 
distinctly different and easily distinguishable. 

"Width. — All shoes should be wider at the toe than at the ends 
of the branches. The average width should be about double the 
thickness of the wall at the toe. 

"Thickness. — The thickness should be sufficient to make the shoe 
last about four weeks and should be uniform, except in special cases. 

"Length. — This will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof 




ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. I57 

viewed in profile. The acute-angled hoof has long over-hanging 
heels, and a considerable proportion of the weight borne by the leg 
falls in the posterior half of the hoof. For such a hoof the branches 
of the shoe should extend back of the buttresses to a distance nearly 
double the thickness of the shoe. For a hoof of the regular form, 
the branches should project an amount equal to the thickness of 
the shoe. In a stumpy hoof, the shoe need not project more than 
one-eighth of an inch. In all cases the shoe should cover the entire 
' bearing surface ' of the wall. 

"Surfaces. — The surface that is turned toward the hoof is 
known as the ' upper/ or 'hoof surface,' of the shoe. That part 
of the hoof surface which is in actual contact with the horn is called 
the ' bearing surface ' of the shoe. The ' bearing surface ' should be 
perfectly horizontal from side to side and wide enough to support 
the full thickness of the wall, the white line, and about an eighth 
of an inch of the margin of the sole. The ' bearing surface ' should 
also be perfectly flat, except that it may be turned up at the toe. 
The surface between the ' bearing surface' and the inner edge of 
the shoe is often beaten down or concaved to prevent pressure too 
far inward upon the sole. This 'concaving,' or 'seating,' should 
be deeper or shallower as the horny sole is less or more concave. 
As a rule, strongly 'cupped' soles require no concaving (hind hoofs, 
narrow fore hoofs). 

"Borders. — The entire outer border should be beveled under 
the foot. Such a shoe is not so readily loosened, not is it so apt 
to lead to interfering. 

"Fullering. — This is a groove in the ground surface of the shoe. 
It should pass through two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe, be 
clean, and of uniform width. It is of advantage in that it makes 
the shoe lighter in proportion to its width, and, by making the 
ground surface somewhat rough, tends to prevent slipping. 

"Nail-Holes. — The shoe must be so punched that the nail- 
holes will fall directly on the white line. They should be confined 
to the fore half of front shoes, but may occupy the anterior two- 



258 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

thirds of hind shoes. For a medium- weight shoe three nail-holes 
in each branch are sufficient, but for heavier shoes, especially those 
provided with long calks, eight holes are about rjght, though three 
on the inside and four on the outside may do. 

"Clips.— These are half-circular ears drawn up from the outer 
edge of the shoe, either at the toe or opposite the side wall. The 
height of a clip should equal the thickness of the shoe, though they 
should be even higher on hind shoes and when a leather sole is 
interposed between sole and hoof. Clips secure the shoe against 
shifting. A side clip should always be drawn up on that branch 
of the shoe that first meets the ground in locomotion. 

"Special Peculiarities of the Chief Classes of Shoes. 

" 1. A shoe for a regular hoof fits when its outer border follows 
the wall closely in the region of the nail-holes, and from the last 
nail to the end of the branch gradually projects beyond the surface 
of the wall to an eighth of an inch, and extends back of the but- 
tresses an amount equal to the thickness of the shoe. The shoe 
must be straight, firm, air-tight, its nail-holes directly over the 
white line, and its branches far enough from the branches of the 
frog to permit the passage of a foot-pick. Branches of the shoe 
must be of equal length. 

"In fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form, we follow the form 
of the hoof; but in base-wide and in base-narrow hoofs, which are 
of irregular form, we must pay attention not only to the form of 
the hoof, but a J so to the direction of the pasterns and the conse- 
quent distribution of weight on the hoof, because where the ;njst 
weight falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened, and 
where the least weight falls (opposite side of the hoof) the surface 
of support should be narrowed. In this way the improper distribu- 
tion of weight within the hoof is evenly distributed over the surface 
of support. 

"2. A shoe for a base-wide hoof should be fitted full on the 
inner side of the foot and fitted close on the outer side, because 
the inner side bears the most weight. The nails in the outer branch 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. I59 

are placed well back, but in the inner branch are crowded forward 
toward the toe. 

"3. A shoe for a base-narrow hoof should be just the reverse 
of the preceding. The outer branch should be somewhat longer 
than the inner. 

u 4. A shoe for an acute-angled hoof should be long in the 
branches, because most of the weight falls in the posterior half of 
the foot. The support in front should be diminished either by 
turning the shoe up at the toe or by beveling it under the toe. 

"5. A shoe for a stumpy hoof should be short in the branches, 
and, for pronounced cases, should increase the support of the toe, 
where the most of the weight falls, by being bevelled downward 
and forward. 

"In many cases, especially in draft-horses, where the hoofs 
stand very close together, the coronet of the outer quarter is found 
to stand out beyond the lower border of the quarter. In such cases 
the outer branch of the shoe from the last nail back must be fitted 
so full that an imaginary perpendicular dropped from the coronet 
will just meet the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on 
the other hand, must be fitted as ' close ' as possible. The principal 
thought should be to set the new shoe further toward the more 
strongly-worn side. Such a practice will render unnecessary the 
widespread and popular fad of giving the outer quarter and heel- 
calk of hind shoes an extreme outward bend. Care should be taken, 
however, that in fitting the shoe 'full' at the quarter the bearing 
surface of the hoof at the quarter be not left unsupported or in- 
completely covered, to be pinched and squeezed inward against the 
frog. This will be obviated by making the outer branch of the 
shoe sufficiently wide and punching it so coarse that the nails will 
fall upon the white line." 



CHAPTER XIII. 



THE HEART, LUNGS, AND AIR-PASSAGES. 

The heart is the organ by which the blood is circulated through 
the body. It hangs a little to the left of the center of the forward 
part of the chest, suspended from the vertebrae of the withers, the 
small end downwards. Its average weight is from seven to eight 
pounds. 

The heart is of interest to the amateur horseman because of 
the influence disease has on its action. In health, the heart of the 
ordinary horse pulsates from thirty-five to forty times a minute; 
the thoroughbred horse, from forty to forty-five. These pulsations 
of the heart send the blood through the arterial system in a series 
of waves, each wave corresponding to one pulsation of the heart. 
These waves constitute what is called the pulse, and it is by count- 
ing the pulse and by observation of the relative strength and fre- 
quency of the waves of the pulse that the heart-action of the horse 
is verified. 

It must be understood that the number of pulsations above 
noted is for the animal at rest, or when not undergoing any special 
exertion. The pulse will become higher during exertion, the amount 
of the increase depending on the extent of the exertion. The pulse 
will be higher in horses kept in fine condition, in warm stables, and 
fed on selected forage, than in animals more roughly stabled and 
fed. It is higher in young horses than in old ones. Fear or excite- 
ment also tend to augment the pulse. 

When the animal is at rest, a pulse of from 50 to 55 indicates 
a feverish condition, the cause of which should be investigated. 
From 70 to 75 beats a minute indicates a very serious condition, 
demanding prompt and energetic action. 

The arteries, where the pulse is felt, are the deep-seated blood- 
vessels; the veins lie nearer to the surface. There are several 
places where the larger arteries come close enough to the skin to 



162 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

be felt, but the best place to take the pulse is on the under side of 
the angle of the under jaw, where an artery bends around the bone. 
The pulse can also be counted by placing the hand against the side. 

"The temperature of the horse is determined roughly by placing 
the fingers in the mouth or between the thighs, or by allowing the 
horse to exhale against the cheek or back of the hand. In accurate 
examination, however, these means of determining temperature are 
not relied upon, but recourse is had to the use of the thermometer. 
The thermometer used for taking the temperature of a horse is a 
self-registering clinical thermometer, similar to that used by physi- 
cians, but larger, being from five to six inches long. The temper- 
ature of the animal is measured in the rectum. 

"The normal temperature of the horse varies somewhat under 
different conditions. It is higher in the young animal than in the 
old and is higher in hot weather than in cold. The weather and 
exercise decidedly influence the temperature, physiologically. The 
normal temperature varies from 99.5 to 101 degrees Fahrenheit. 
If the temperature rises to 101.5, the horse is said to have a low 
fever; if the temperature reaches 104, the fever is moderate; and 
if it reaches 106, it is high. Above this point it is regarded as very 
high. In some diseases the temperature goes as high as 108 or 
110 degrees. In the ordinary infectious diseases it does not often 
exceed 106. A temperature of 107.5 degrees and above is very 
dangerous, and must be reduced promptly if the horse is to be 
saved."* 

"The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They con- 
sist of two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the 
lights, situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of 
the space taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Ex- 
ternally, they are completely covered by the pleura. The structure 
of the lung consists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably 
elastic tissue, which can only be torn with difficulty. Each lung 
is divided into a certain number of lobes, which are subdivided 

*Page 17, "Diseases of the Horse," Bureau of Animal Industry, 1903. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 1Q3 

into numberless lobules (little lobes). A little bronchial tube 
terminates in every one of these lobules. The little tube then 
divides into minute branches, which open into the air-cells of the 
lungs. The air-cells are little sacs, having a diameter varying from 
one-seventieth to one-two-hundredth of an inch; they have but one 
opening, the communication with the branches of the little bron- 
chial tubes. Small blood-vessels ramify in the walls of the air-cells. 
The air-cells are the consummation of the intricate structures form- 
ing the respiratory apparatus. They are of prime importance, all 
the rest being complementary. It is here that the exchange of 
gases takes place. As before stated, the walls of the cells are very 
thin; so also are the walls of the blood-vessels. Through these 
walls escapes from the blood the carbonic acid gas that has been 
absorbed by the blood in its circulation through the different parts 
of the body; and through these walls is absorbed, by the blood 
from the air in the air-cells, the oxygen-gas, which is the life-giving 
element of the atmosphere."* 

The nasal passages, or nostrils, unite above the back of the 
mouth, forming the pharynx. The pharynx is a box-like organ, 
through which the food passes into the gullet, as well as the air 
into the lungs. The nostrils and mouth open into it in front, nos- 
trils above, and the gullet and windpipe lead from it in rear, the 
windpipe below. To guard against the introduction of food into 
the windpipe, a large valve, 2 (Figure 103), closes it, that is hinged 
below and that lies, when the horse is not eating, over the opening 
into the mouth. Food entering the pharynx from the mouth pushes 
this valve into place over the windpipe and passes over it into the 
gullet. For this reason a horse always must breathe through its 
nose, as air entering the pharynx through the mouth has the same 
effect as food of stopping the windpipe; hence it is important never 
to call on an animal for sudden or energetic action when there are 
particles of food in his pharynx that may be suddenly drawn into 
his lung, causing him to choke. 

*Pages 119 and 120, " Diseases of the Horse," Bureau of Animal Industry, 
1903. 



W 










ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



165 



Back of this valve lies the larynx, containing the vocal cords; 
this in turn opens into the windpipe, which separates, in the chest, 
into two branches, leading to the right and left lungs (Figure 103). 

In the lungs these branches divide into bronchial tubes (Figure 
103), which, by repeated ramifications, terminate in air-cells, where 
the process of purifying the blood takes place. These air-passages 
are all lined with mucous membrane, which secretes a slimy fluid 
called mucus, which, when discharged from the nostrils, is called 
phlegm. 

When, for any reason, this membrane becomes acutely inflamed; 
a disease exists, which is variously named, depending upon its loca- 
tion in the air-passages. - 

In the nostrils or pharynx it is called cold in the head; in the 
larynx and windpipe, laryngitis, or sore throat; in the branches of 
the windpipe and the bronchial tubes, bronchitis. If the substance 
of the lungs becomes inflamed, the disease is known as pneumonia. 

Lining the chest and covering the lungs are two membranes, 
called the pleurae. They are fast to the lungs and chest, respect- 
ively, but are completely separated from each other. A lubricant 
is secreted by each that flows between them, making it easy for 
them to slip on each other as the lungs are enlarged and contracted. 
If they become inflamed, the disease is pleurisy. Bronchitis, pleu- 
risy, and pneumonia are allied diseases and rarely exist separately. 

Congestion of the lungs is an engorgement of the capillaries 
of the lungs with blood, caused by over-exertion, or sudden chilling 
after heating work. The lungs can not purify the blood fast enough, 
and, unless the congestion is arrested, the horse dies of suffocation. 

When a horse has been driven or ridden very fast for a longer 
period than should have been the case, the severe strain put upon 
the diaphragm by the extra exertion will cause violent spasmodic 
contractions of that muscle. This condition is called thumps, and 
is similar in origin to the familiar hiccoughs. Usually the flauk is 
shrunken, and the posterior angle of the ribs thrust outwards. The 
jerky motion caused by the spasm shakes the whole body. The 



iQfi ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

pulse is not accelerated in thumps; it often is weaker than normal. 
If not relieved, death usually results. 

If the disease appears while the animal is on the road, he should 
be stopped at once; the saddle or harness should be removed, and 
the body and legs should be briskly rubbed to draw as much of 
the circulation to the skin as possible. As many persons as are 
available should be put at this work. When the body has become 
warm and the spasms relax, the patient should be warmly blanketed 
and should be put in the nearest box-stall, out of drafts. Two or 
three days' careful nursing will usually complete the convalescence. 

Thumps attacking a horse on the road is always caused by 
injudicious use. Thumps may be followed by congestion of the 
lungs, especially in the winter, or by founder in the summer. 

These are all acute diseases. From repeated attacks, the mem- 
branes become thickened or their vitality becomes impaired, and 
certain chronic diseases result. 

Thick wind is the name for the chronically diseased and thick- 
ened condition of the smaller bronchial tubes. The amount of 
blood that can be purified is limited by this disease, and the horse 
shows distress and labors when worked fast or hard. He seems 
to struggle for his wind — to gasp for breath. It is not accompanied 
by noise, and the inhalations and exhalations recur at equal inter- 
vals. There is no medical treatment for this disease. If the horse 
is very carefully fed, is not exercised at all while his stomach is 
full, and is worked lightly and at slow gaits, he may finally recover 
partially, and gradually become more and more serviceable. 

Broken wind, or heaves, is caused either by a rupture of the 
air-cells, or by a partial paralysis of the muscles of the cells that 
assist in expelling the air. In this disease the ordinary action of 
the lungs and diaphragm is not enough to clear the lungs, and a 
second contraction is necessary. 

The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle, rising from the ab- 
domen into the hollow of the chest. By its muscular action the 
lungs are squeezed against the ribs and the air thus mechanically 





'1 ' ' 




f 





Igg ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

pushed out of them. With the withdrawal of the diaphragm the 
lungs expand and follow it, and so fill themselves with the fresh 
air that is so necessary to the life of the animal. If the stomach 
is overloaded with coarse food, the diaphragm will be mechanically 
and constantly pushed against the lungs, and so limit their powers 
of expansion. While this condition exists, if the animal is called 
on for any extra effort, the lungs will not respond to the demands 
made on them by the circulation, and the cell walls will be ruptured 
in consequence. When the processes of digestion remove the ob- 
struction to the lungs' proper action, the evil will still remain. The 
lung-cells that have been ruptured will leak air into the lung tissue 
itself, and this air is expelled with difficulty. Horses living in a 
dusty or badly ventilated stable are predisposed to heaves. The 
lungs, being constantly irritated, become chronically inflamed, and 
the muscles, of the cell walls lose their elasticity or become partially 
paralyzed. 

Broken wind is easily distinguished from other lung disease 
by the double effort to exhale air, usually accompanied by a hacking 
cough. The period of exhalation is longer than the period of in- 
halation. Heaves, except in very mild, recent cases, is incurable, 
and the horse is greatly disabled by it. 

Roaring is a disease that is characterized by a peculiar noise 
made by the horse at inhalation. The noise called roaring may be 
made by a sound horse when excited, or when suddenly put to ex- 
ertion after a period of idleness, or on account of a cramped position 
of the head or neck. This noise is not accompanied, in the sound 
horse, by evidences of fatigue and inability to perform work, as 
is the case in the unsound horse. Chronic roaring is the result of 
a paralysis of the muscles of the larynx that control the vocal cords. 
This paralysis prevents them from being opened sufficiently wide 
to admit air without vibrating. Often a horse may be affected by 
the disease — paralysis of the vocal cord — without the accompanying 
sound. This can be detected by making a sudden motion towards 
the flank with the hand or whip, when the unsound animal will 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



169 



grunt or groan. Roaring is very disabling, and can be cured only 
by a surgical operation. This operation consists in removing the 
vocal cord that has become uncontrollable. 

Whistling is a variation of the sound made by a roarer. A 
horse with a severe sore throat may make a whistling sound at 
inhalation. This should not be considered as evidence that he is 
a roarer until the sore throat is cured, when, if the horse is sound, 
the whistling will cease. 

A sound horse should breathe noiselessly and easily in all emer- 
gencies. A horse that makes any noise or has any difficulty in its 
breathing, no matter how slight, should not be considered sound. 




The Ninth Cavalry Polo Team. 

By permission of the 1914 "Rasp." 



CHAPTER XIV. 



THE DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 

The digestive apparatus consists of the mouth, the gullet, the 
stomach, the large and small intestines, and certain other organs, 

into whose functions it is not necessary to inquire in so elementary 
a treatise as this one. These organs, except, of course, the mouth 
and a portion of the gullet, are contained in the abdominal cavity. 

The food is taken by the lips and is worked back to the upper 
part of the mouth by the lips and tongue. There it is masticated 
by the molar teeth and mixed with saliva secreted by the salivary 
glands. This is the first process of digestion. When the mouthful 
has been well broken up and saturated with saliva, it is passed back 
through the pharynx and gullet to the stomach. This is a small 
organ, having a capacity of three to three and a half gallons. Two- 
thirds of the lining of the stomach is a membrane that secretes 
gastric juice. The food is slowfy mixed in the stomach with this 
liquid until it partially changes its character, and is passed into the 
small intestine, to be there mixed with the digestive juices of the 
liver, spleen, and other intestinal glands, to transformed by the 
chemical action of these reagents until it is ready to be absorbed 
into the system. 

A system of vessels, called lacteals, and the veins, absorb the 
nutritive part of the food thus transformed and carry it to a large 
vein near the heart, where it is poured into the blood. This fluid, 
thus enriched, is carried by the circulation to all parts of the body 
to nourish it and repair waste tissues. The debris of digestion is 
forced through the large intestine and is voided as dung. 

Water takes a different course. It passes almost directly through 
the stomach and small intestine to the water-sac, or caecum, where 
it is stored for use. A portion is drawn off to be mixed with the 
blood to supply the fluids of the system; the rest, carrying with it 



172 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGf. 

certain salts necessary to be removed from the body, is excreted 
through the kidneys as urine. 

The horse is an animal requiring regularity in feeding and 
watering and a very limited variety of foods to be kept in efficient 
condition. The horse's stomach is very small; in proportion to 
his bulk, it is only half the size of the human stomach. It rests 
upon the large intestine and against the diaphragm, while the small 
intestines lie further back in the abdomen, more remote from the 
direct action of the diaphragm. The walls of the stomach are 
elastic, and permit it to accommodate itself to the bulk of the food 
that enters it. 

The above considerations render it imperative that a horse 
should not be called on for severe work or rapid exercise immediately 
after eating a bulky meal. The stomach, distended, interferes with 
the free action of the diaphragm, and the latter, in its efforts to 
increase the air capacity of the lungs, squeezes the stomach back 
against the intestines, and so greatly impedes the processes of 
digestion. 

Very fortunately, digestion is a rapid process in fche horse, and 
the stomach is called on to do but little of the digestion of the 
bulkier foods. Water is retained in the stomach or small intestines 
only when it is absorbed by partially digested food. This has the 
effect of diluting the digestive fluids, of delaying the process of 
digestion, and of mechanically removing from the stomach food 
that is not ready to be passed to the intestine. In addition, the 
water cools the stomach and its contents below the temperature 
at which it best performs its functions. For these reasons horses 
should not have access to water while eating, or for an hour or 
two after. 

Hay requires to be thoroughly chewed and mixed with saliva 
before it can be swallowed. When it reaches the stomach, it is 
delayed there but a short time, and passes to the small intestine, 
where the greater part of its digestion is performed. If a horse 
is fed only hay, the first portion of his meal passes into the intestine 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. I73 

very soon, but the stomach retains the succeeding portions for a 
longer time, and it is several hours before the stomach is empty. 
In this way the muscles of the stomach get the necessary amount of 
exercise to keep them in proper condition. 

Oats, however, and other concentrated foods are digested al- 
most entirely in the stomach; when they pass into the intestine, 
much of their bulk is rapidly absorbed by the lacteals, and there 
is little left for the intestine to work on. The result is that the 
horse is still restless and hungry. If this one-sided ration is con- 
tinually given him, he will fall off faster than he would do if fed 
hay alone, and this in spite of the fact that oats contain more ele- 
ments of nourishment than hay does. Horses given an insufficient 
amount of hay will eat their bedding, or any rough food they can 
get, to satisfy the craving for intestinal exercise. Poor hay — that 
is not musty or dusty — and wheat, rye, or barley straw, although 
they may contain practically no nourishing qualities, will preserve 
the strength and health of a horse in a remarkable degree. On 
this account horses on campaign, or in places where good hay is 
hard to get, ought always to be provided with rough forage of some 
sort, no matter how poor in nourishing qualities. 

The normal processes of digestion must not be interfered with, 
or sickness or debility will result. A certain amount of the digestion 
of food is done in the mouth, where the chemical action of the saliva 
prepares the food for the further action of the stomach. In order 
that the saliva can reach every part of each mouthful of food, it 
must be broken up by the teeth. This process is necessarily done in 
the case of hay, but oats are already fine enough to be swallowed 
and their smooth hulls offer no obstacle to that process. These 
hulls are insoluble in the juices of the stomach, and, if the oat grain 
has not been crushed by the teeth, the kernel of the grain passes 
through the horse unchanged. If it is imperfectly crushed, it will 
be only partially digested in the stomach, and will pass on to the 
intestines, to ferment there and to generate gases there that will 
cause distress and often disease. 



174 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

Owing to the uniformity in diet and the regular hours of feeding, 
labor, and rest of most well-kept horses, diseases of the digestive 
apparatus are comparatively infrequent among that class of horses. 
They are the most easily preventable of all equine diseases. Un- 
fortunately, many horses are not well kept, and, as a result, ."the 
disease of the horse that is most frequently met with is what is 
termed colic. This term is applied loosely to almost all diseases 
of the abdomen that are accompanied by pain. If the horse evinces 
abdominal pain, he is likely to be put down as suffering with colic, 
no matter whether the difficulty be a cramp of the bowel, an in- 
ternal hernia, overloading of the stomach, or a painful disease of 
the bladder or liver. 

"The general symptoms of abdominal pain, and therefore of 
colic, are restlessness, cessation of whatever the horse is about, 
lying down, looking around towards the flank, jerky switching of 
the tail, stretching as if to urinate, frequent changes of position, 
and groaning. In the more intense forms the horse plunges about, 
throws himself down, rolls, assumes unnatural positions, as sitting 
on the haunches, and grunts loudly. Usually the pain is not con- 
stant, and during the intermissions the horse may eat and appear 
normal. During the period of pain, sweat is poured out freely. 
Sometimes the horse moves constantly in a circle. The respirations 
are accelerated, and usually there is no fever." 

From the above quotation* it is easily seen that grave errors 
might be made in attempting to set down a specific treatment for 
colic. The best treatment, for the non-professional person, is to 
get the patient free from all harness, in a roomy box-stall with plenty 
of bedding, so that he will not hurt himself in his spasms of pain — 
and send for a veterinary surgeon. 

Indigestion, or catarrh of the stomach or intestines, is a much 
more common disease than colic, but it usually does not exhibit 
such violent symptoms. The mucous membrane is the general 
lining membrane of the digestive and respiratory apparatus. In- 

*Page 50, "Diseases of the Horse," Bureau of Animal Industry, 1903. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



175 



flammation of this membrane impairs the digestive ability of the 
organs inflamed, and the animal suffers a loss of vitality in direct 
proportion to the extent of the disease. The symptoms of the dis- 
ease are an irregular and depraved appetite and a loss of condition. 
The animal may show colicky symptoms in extreme cases. The 
bowels are irregular, and the dung contains much of the horse's 
food that is unchanged by its passage through the animal's body. 
The horse's skin seems very tightly stretched, and the abdomen 
is " tucked up." 

Indigestion is due to numerous causes; anything that irritates 
the mucous membrane may cause it. Feeding improper food, bad 
teeth, causing imperfect mastication, working a horse immediately 
after eating — all are prolific causes of indigestion.* 

Lampas, the undue swelling of the membrane covering the for- 
ward part of the roof of the horse's mouth, is more an indication of 
disease than a disease. Treatment of the swelling itself does little 
good. The cause is usually with the horse's diet or digestion. The 
old practice was to burn the swellings with a red-hot iron; such 
a treatment simply aggravates the disease and adds to the pain. 
It should never be allowed. Some veterinarians still advocate cut- 
ting the roof of the mouth, believing that a little local blood-letting 
will relieve it. As the cause of the disease is elsewhere, a better 
practice is to try to find it and correct it. This is more the work 
of the professional than of the amateur. The existence of lampas 
does not necessarily indicate a serious condition. A day or two 
of rest and a few bran-mashes will usually effect a cure. 

It is hardly ever advisable for the amateur to attempt to treat 
diseases of the vital or digestive organs. He will more often injure 
than help the animal. Rest, good food, and sanitary surroundings 
are far better than drugs in the hands of men not thoroughly posted 
on their properties and effects. 

*This disease is, except in cases where its origin is hereditary, one that 
should be prevented. It will be discussed more at length under the head of 
" Preventable Diseases." 



CHAPTER XV. 



STABLE MANAGEMENT. 

The term "stable management" includes the art of proper 
stabling, sanitary care, feeding, watering, grooming, and nursing 
of horses. 

Stabling and Sanitary Care. — The first requisite for a stable is 
to provide shelter from inclement weather. In far too many stables 
this seems to be the only object in view. Of almost equal importance 
to the item of shelter, for the robust health of the occupants, are 
ventilation, dryness, and cleanliness. 

Economy of air-space is alwaj^s sought for in stables. The 
horses are kept in stalls that usually are only large enough for the 
animal to stand or lie in. All available space in the stable is used 
for passageways and for storage of forage and equipment of all 
sorts; no space is wasted. That horse is lucky in a large stable 
who has as much air-space as the man who grooms him has in his 
quarters, although six or seven times his weight.* 

It is, therefore, of the greatest importance that ample facilities 
for ventilation exist. 

A horse needs shelter to best preserve his strength, but he 
does not need his shelter heated artificially. 

In order to keep horses 7 coats short and glossy in the winter, 
owners generally blanket them. Many, in addition, heat their sta- 
bles. The latter is, in most parts of the United States, unnecessary; 
but, as it is much more comfortable for the stablemen to work in 
a warm stable, they persuade their employers that the horses need 
it, thereby sacrificing the health of their charges to their own comfort. 



*Three thousand cubic feet of ventilated air-space per horse is recom- 
mended as necessary to preserve his vigor unimpaired, according to General 
Fitzwygram. -He adds that, since horses are not so susceptible to draughts 
and cold as men are, by ample ventilating arrangements this demand for air- 
space may be considerably decreased. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 177 

Horses that are blanketed in warm stables must, when they are 
taken out, be kept moving or warmly clothed. Otherwise there is, 
in the winter, grave danger of pneumonia, lung fever, or other sim- 
ilar diseases, and, in the summer, of founder. 

Proper grooming of horses kept blanketed in cold stables will 
keep their coats in order. They will be more willing to work and 
less liable to suffer from the effects of standing outside in the cold, 
when the business or pleasure of their owners demands it. Veter- 
inary bills will be kept down, and the only persons to find fault 
with the arrangement will be the men who have to tend them. 

Insist, therefore, on an ample supply of fresh air in the stable. 
Insist also that the fresh air entering the stables does not produce 
direct draughts on the horses. The currents of entering air should 
be diffused by suitable mechanical arrangements. 

In damp, cold climates, valuable horses that justify the ex- 
penditure are benefited by having open fire-places in their stables 
to keep them dry and to assist in ventilation. Steam or hot water 
heating arrangements should not be used to heat the stalls. 

Dryness should be insisted on in stables. 

This can only be secured in most climates by building the 
stables in well-drained situations, open to the air and sunlight. 

Cleanliness can be secured only by constant supervision. 

Cleanliness and dryness go hand in hand. A horse drinks about 
eight gallons of water a day. This water is used : first, to maintain 
the fluidity of the blood and other liquids, the moisture of the tis- 
sues, and to replace that lost by perspiration; second, to moisten 
the food and to prepare it for digestion; third, acting as a solvent 
for certain noxious salts, developed in the nourishment and main- 
tenance of the body, to excrete- the solution as urine. 

Much of the daily allowance of water is left on the stable floor 
by the horse. If he is well bedded, the bedding absorbs it. If the 
floor of his stall is of clay, unless the most perfect care is taken 
of it, he will mix clay and urine and manure together into foul 
mud, an excellent culture for disease germs and a still for the manu- 



178 ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 

facture of ammonia. If the floor 's of wood (a very poor floor, 
by the way), the urine soaks into it, and, unless perfectly drained, it 
renders it very unsanitary. If of brick or stone, the drainage can be 
easily maintained if the floor is well made and the gutters kept open. 

In any case, to insure both cleanliness and dryness, all bedding 
must be taken out of the stall in the morning and the stall cleaned. 
Such of the bedding as has become urine-soaked must be thrown 
away with the manure and the rest exposed to the sun and air and 
thoroughly dried before it is put back. The stable should be opened 
and well aired, the mangers cleaned, and the dust swept up and 
carried out. 

All persons having animals in their charge should frequently 
inspect their stables early in the morning, to test the quality of the 
air in them and to see that their orders respecting ventilation have 
been carried out. They should inspect them daily at the hour des- 
ignated to have the bedding aired, to see that everything is scru- 
pulously cleaned, and again when the stables are prepared for the 
night, to see that the bedding is clean, dry, and well laid and that 
the gutters are not stopped up. 

Feeding and Watering. — The time of feeding must be regulated 
according to the uses to which the horses are put. The sequence of 
feeding should be the same for all horses. As we have seen, water 
passes almost directly through the stomach and small intestines to 
the caecum, or water-sac; the hay component of the food is largely 
digested in the intestine, the grain component, especially oats, is 
almost entirely digested in the stomach. Starting with these facts, 
the order of feeding and watering is easily formulated. 

A horse does not usually care for water early in the day. He 
wants his oats then, and should have them. Oats are concentrated 
food, full of nourishment and energy. They are easily digested 
when thoroughly chewed and mixed with saliva. The average horse 
should be given for his morning meal at least six quarts of oats. 
They should be plump, of sweet, fresh odor, and free from dust, 
dirt, or other seeds. After feeding oats, at least two hours should 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. I79 

elapse before giving water. After this time he should be allowed 
water at every opportunity until again fed. If he is worked all day, 
it is best to give him a second feed of oats at the noon rest-hour, 
remembering not to water him for two hours after. When he comes 
in at night, he should find his hay ration in his manger and no oats. 
An hour afterwards he should be given his grain, and left for the 
night. If the stables are inspected at various hours of the night, 
some horses will be found lying down, some dozing in a standing 
position, some feeding. They like to take their time with their 
food. Their stomachs are small. They are slow feeders. Food 
assimilates better if taken slowly. They are light sleepers, easily 
roused, and they enjoy a nibble of food when awakened. 

Often when the stablemen come in, in the morning, in many 
of the mangers a portion of the food offered the night before will 
be found uneaten, even when no more than the usual amount had 
been placed at their disposal. In such cases carefully clean the 
mangers and feed-boxes before offering more food. The horse is 
off condition and needs coaxing a little. The food he has been 
nosing over all night has become stale and unattractive to him. 
He will do much better if clean, sweet food is given him, and he may 
be induced to eat quite a little if humored in this way. 

Bran should be fed either dry or steamed. A cold bran-mash 
is about as indigestible a mess as a horse can be fed. It is soft 
and watery and easily swallowed. The molars are accustomed to 
hard, dry food. When food is softened it is ready to swallow, from 
the horse's point of view, and down it goes. A cold bran-mash 
is usually full of dry, unmoistened particles; bran does not readily 
absorb cold water. It is distinctly a food that needs either cooking 
or the action of saliva to prepare it for digestion. If it is put in 
the stomach cold and unacted on by saliva, it will ferment and 
produce indigestion. 

If fed dry, it is a food slowly taken into the stomach. It must 
be chewed to get it moist enough to be swallowed, and the only 
fluids available are secretions of the salivary glands. When bran, 



IgO ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

thus moistened, reaches the stomach, it is warm, digestion has be- 
gun, and that process continues naturally. 

If fed wet, it should be steamed. A large watertight and easily 
cleaned receptacle should be prepared expressly for this purpose. 
The bran, mixed with salt in the proportion of one ounce of salt 
to three pounds of bran, should be put in it, and boiling water, in 
the proportion of two and one-half pints to three pounds of bran, 
poured over it. It should than be tightly covered with woolen 
blankets, and allowed to steam for fifteen or twenty minutes. It 
should be fed hot, and the receptacle it was cooked in at once 
cleaned and sunned. After it has been eaten, the mangers should 
be cleaned thoroughly. Bran-mash sours quickly, and, aside from 
being a good culture for disease germs, the odor of sour bran is 
distasteful and makes other food mixed with it not appetizing. 

For horses in good health, bran, preferably dry, should be fed 
one day in seven, and in the evening. Cooked mashes are food 
for sick or ailing horses. 

Horses should have salt, in rock form, in their feed-boxes at 
all times. In addition, fine table salt, a heaping tablespoonful to 
each horse, should be fed twice a week, either mixed with bran or 
oats, or placed where they can lick it at their leisure. 

The water furnished horses should be pure and fresh, without 
taste or smell. In the summer, water should stand in the trough 
long enough for the chill to be taken off. Water in large quantities 
should never be given horses when they are heated, unless their 
exercise is to be continued. 

Charles B. Michener, V.S. (on p. 35, " Diseases of the Horse," Bu- 
reau of Animal Industry, 1903), says: "There is a popular fallacy 
that if a horse is warm, he should not be allowed to drink; many 
claiming that the first swallow of water 'founders' the animal or 
produces colic. This is erroneous. No matter how warm a horse 
may be, it is always entirely safe to allow him from six to ten swal- 
ows of water. The danger is not in the first swallow of water, 
but is due to the excessive quantity that the animal will take, when 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 181 

warm, if not restrained." This opinion from such authority is val- 
uable for horsemen to have, but it is unsafe to permit the average 
stableman to act on it. Unless you are sure that your man is care- 
ful enough and faithful enough to stop the horse at six to ten swal- 
lows, it is wiser to adhere to the rule that the hot horse should have 
no water until cooled. 

Conditioning Thin Horses.* — "When a horse which is living 
under apparently favorable conditions becomes emaciated (neither 
from overwork nor from extreme age), an effort should be made 
to discover the cause of the thinness. Begin by sending for the 
person responsible for the condition of the horse and for the farrier, 
and with their assistance solve the following points: 

1. Has the horse lampas? 

2. Is the tongue sore? 

3. Has he wolf's teeth? 

4. Are the molars sharp and irregular? 

5. Does he quidf his food? 

6. Are the teeth unsound or out of order, or (in the case 

of a young horse) are the milk teeth remaining in 
too long, and thereby interfering with the coming of 
the permanent teeth? 

7. Does he bolt his oats? 

8. Does the adjacent horse steal his oats, or bully him? 

9. Is he a spare J horse? 

10. Does he suffer from parasitic worms? 

11. Is his urine normal? 

12. Is his liver out of order? (This is indicated by the 

3^ellow and bloodless appearance of the gums.) 

13. Is he watered regularly? 



*From Captain M. F. Rimington's (British Army) little handbook, "Hints 
on Stable Management," pp. 30, 31. 

fA horse quids his food when he has difficulty in swallowing it. 

JA spare animal is one that, for constitutional reasons, does not take 
on flesh. 



182 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

"If it is still impossible to account for the horse being out of 
condition, you should next endeavor to find out if he really gets 
his oats or only a small proportion of them; in a word, if the oats 
are being systematically stolen. Assured that the oats are not tam- 
pered with, it becomes necessary to make further inquiries as to 
the habits of the horse, as to whether he is restless, or in the habit 
of fretting or over-exciting himself, either in the stable or when at 
work. In some cases it is impossible to discover the cause or causes 
at work. In obscure cases, a complete change of diet, and, as far 
as possible, of surroundings, often has a wonderful influence. For 
example, a couple of months' run at grass in the spring or summer 
is most beneficial to thin, hide-bound horses. Failing this, it will 
often be found useful to fill the manger at each stable hour with 
chaff; this will give the horse something to pick at, and keep him 
from fretting. Some men get horses into condition more easily than 
others, and it will often be found that a thin horse, put into good 
hands, will improve rapidly." 

Grooming is another important item in the care of the horse. 
Much of the excretion is done through the skin. While at work a 
horse perspires freely, and the very nature of his work keeps him 
constantly, while at work, in a dusty atmosphere. The dust and 
sweat and precipitated salts of perspiration combine to form a cake 
at the hair-roots that clogs the pores. Drying, it has an unpleasant 
astringent feeling that annoys the animal. This crust of filth and 
dirt catches and fosters disease germs and parasites that feed upon 
the animal and that are never found on well-groomed horses. 

Besides cleaning the coat, grooming stimulates the circulation 
and acts as a tonic to the horse. It rests a tired animal, and relieves 
congestion following a hearty meal by diverting part of the excess- 
ive blood-supply from the digestive region. Twenty minutes' brisk 
grooming in the morning and twenty-five in the evening is the right 
amount to keep the animal's coat clean and skin healthy. More 
time than that will be appreciated in the satiny coat of the horse. 
A horse can hardly be groomed too much. The average horse likes 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 183 

to be fussed with and handled. He enjoys having his legs rubbed 
and his coat brushed. The currycomb is not so much enjoyed. 
It should be used merely to loosen caked mud or manure on the 
exterior of the coat, and, except with the greatest care, never below 
the knees or hocks. Use only the fingers and brush on the mane 
and tail. Throw cards and mane-combs out of the stable. 

In grooming with the horse-brush, the groom should stand well 
away from the horse, legs well apart, and, with the brush in the 
hand next the horse's head (and the currycomb in the other), brush 
the coat with the lay of the hairs, throwing as much of the weight 
of the body into the brush as possible. After three or four strokes 
with the brush, clean it on the comb. Clean the comb every few 
minutes by tapping it on the ground in rear of the horse. 

The sheath should be frequently washed with Castile soap 
and water, and never oiled. Oil simply collects and holds dust and 
makes washing more often necessary. The glands of the skin se- 
crete all the oil needed to keep it in condition. 

Keep the long hairs of the muzzle cut short. They have no 
useful function in the domestic horse and are unsightly. 

Keep the fetlock short the year around. In winter it should 
be an inch and a half long and neatly trimmed. In summer it 
should be clipped. 

This principle in the care and treatment of horses can not be 
too closely adhered to: Give your horse plenty of good food and 
pure water, house him in a dry, clean, and well- ventilated stable, 
and he will keep surprisingly well. Have him well shod. Work 
him hard, through long hours, and he will still keep well under the 
above conditions. When he does get sick or injured, go for a good 
veterinarian, follow his advice to the letter, and so save your money 
and your horse. 

The following rules laid down in the Cavalry Drill Regulations 
are so good that they are reproduced here. Every person having 
to do with horses should observe them strictly : 

Never threaten, strike, or abuse a horse. 



184 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

Before going into a stall, speak to a horse gently and then go 
in quietly. 

Never take a rapid gait until a horse has been warmed up by 
gentle exercise. 

Never put up a horse brought in a heated condition to the stable 
or picket-line, but throw a blanket over him and rub his legs and 
walk him until cool. When he is wet, put him under shelter and 
wisp him until dry. 

Never feed grain to a horse nor allow him to stand uncovered 
when overheated. Hay will not hurt a horse, no matter how warm 
he may be. 

Never water a horse when heated, unless the exercise or march 
is to be immediately resumed. 

Never throw water over any part of a horse when heated. 

Never allow a horse's back to be cooled suddenly by washing 
or even by removing the blanket unnecessarily. 

To cool the back gradually, the blanket may be removed and 
replaced with the dry side next the horse. 

There is no emergency that will justify striking a horse on 
the head. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



ENDURANCE OF HORSES.— VICES.— PUNISHMENT. 

The endurance of a horse is the measure of his ability to resist 
fatigue and is dependent directly upon his powers of digestion and 
assimilation and the co-ordination of his nervous and muscular 
systems. 

Muscular power is derived from the contraction of the muscles. 
The muscles of locomotion are composed of numerous fibers, built 
up in groups, and attached by a tendon at each end to a bone. 
One of these bones serves as a fulcrum, the other as a lever. The 
muscle lies between them. Each of the fibers of the muscle, ani- 
mated separately by a nerve, contracts, and the whole muscle is 
shortened. The bones, when a flexor muscle is contracted, are 
brought nearer together; they are separated more when acted on 
by extensors. The muscular action is the same in all muscles — the 
fibers contract in the direction of their length. 

As a muscle contracts its chemical nature changes. It con- 
sumes oxygen and certain other elements brought to it by the blood, 
which come to an active muscle in increased quantities, and it gives 
off carbonic acid and numerous other waste products that the blood 
washes off through the veins. 

The entire operation, the impulse given by the nerve, the con- 
traction of the muscle, and subsequent chemical change in the con- 
stituent elements of the blood "feeding" the muscle, the pull on 
the tendon, and the resultant energy transmitted to the bone, must 
work in perfect harmony with the corresponding actions of all the 
muscles involved, and is consummated in an almost inappreciable 
period of time. 

The muscles of locomotion are all voluntary muscles; all are 
controlled by the volition of the animal. The muscles that control 
the organs of respiration, digestion, and circulation are, almost en- 
tirely, involuntary, but their actions are under control of nerve 



186 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



impulses, coming, as a rule, from nerve-centers other than the 
brain. No muscle contracts unless a nerve animates it, and there 
must be nerve impulse for every contraction. 

" Prolonged exercise is always accompanied by an expenditure 
of food, of blood, and of nerve-tissue, by an increased circulation, 
by an acceleration of respiration, and, finally, by a greater activity"* 
of the organs of excretion. Admitting this, it is plain that the tired 
horse owes his condition indirectly to one of two causes: either to 
nervous exhaustion, or to an excessive clogging of the muscles with 
waste tissues. In either case, rest and food are the only restoratives. 

The ordinary gasoline motor illustrates the situation exactly. 
A drop of gasoline is exploded by an electric spark in a cylinder. 
The resultant gases, by their expansion, move a piston that is geared 
to the wheels, producing locomotion. As long as the supply of gas- 
oline is kept up, the electric batteries remain "alive," and the spent 
gases can escape and not clog the cylinders, the efficiency of the 
machine is unimpaired. But let any one of these conditions lapse 
and the machine stops. So with the horse. As long as the digestive 
apparatus enriches the blood, the lungs oxidize it, the veins carry 
away the waste tissues, the skin, lungs, kidneys, and other organs 
of excretion remove the debris from the system, and the vigor of 
the nervous system (the horse's electric battery) is unimpaired, so 
long will the horse do his work. The failure of any one of these 
functions and the limit of his endurance is reached. He may stum- 
ble along a little longer, but it is with apparent labor and to little 
purpose. He needs rest. 

From the exterior of the horse a great deal can be predicted of 
his powers of endurance. The competent horseman can tell exactly 
to what sort of work he is best suited — whether he is a draft-horse, 
a driver, a saddler, or a general utility horse; but no one can tell 
which of two horses, externally of equal promise, will be able to do 
the most work.| 

*The Exterior of the Horse, Gouboux and Barriere, p. 415. 

|Of a team of large sorrel horses of no particular breed, owned by a con- 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 18 7 

This is especially true of horses bred for speed. If two colts, 
of similar breeding, are given advantage of the most scientific care 
and training, are brought up by the same trainer, on the same diet, 
and with exactly similar treatment, it is usually impossible to tell, 
until the actual test on the track is made, which will prove the 
speedier. 

The horse doing slow work contracts his muscles slowly; the 
expenditure of tissue is very moderate, and especially moderate is 
the expenditure of nerve-tissue. He is tired after a long day's work, 
but it is the weariness that comes from the exhaustion of the food- 
supply, not from nervous exhaustion. The circulation, in the ordi- 
narily healthy animal, is quite sufficient to keep the blood pure 
and the muscles cleared of debris. In fact, much of the food-supply 
is stored between the muscles and in the abdominal region in the 
form of fat. This fat is easily drawn on to restore waste tissues 
in emergencies when extra work is to be done, or when the food- 
supply is diminished. It also adds to the mass of the horse, and 
so increases his value for draft purposes. The nerves of such an 
animal are never over-taxed. He is kind, gentle, free from vice, 
and obedient. 

The race-horse, the trotting-horse, the hunter, the polo-pony — 
"the horse of luxury" generally — has work of an entirely different 
sort to do. Speed is what he is bred for; speed and endurance. 
The race-horse is bred in economic idleness. He is trained to make 
his machinery perfect and under perfect control. The preparation 
for a race, after his schooling is done, is a matter of weeks, and his 
work is done in two or three minutes. Yet, with all the preparation 
possible, after this short period of work, he is more exhausted than 
is the draft-horse after ten hours' steady pulling. To restore him 



tractor doing work at the Military Academy, one horse has used up three team- 
mates, and is still sound and in prime condition. Nothing in his external ap- 
pearance would indicate any extraordinary qualities. He does his full share 
of the work, yet what he thrives under wears out other horses, apparently just 
as good, in a short time. (1907.) 



188 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

to his full strength, he must be cooled slowly, fed and watered with 
judgment, exercised regularly. 

The nervous strain in this sort of work is tremendous. The 
muscular contractions are frequent, violent, and sudden. The sup- 
ply of blood and the change in the muscular tissues are greatly in- 
creased and the debris correspondingly increased. The lungs are 
called on to purify the blood in greater quantities. The nostrils are 
dilated and the windpipe straightened to increase the volume of 
air entering the lungs. The inspiration of all this added work must 
come from the nervous system, from the brain and other nerve- 
centers. These organs must be finely developed to do this extra 
work properly. The result is that the race-horse, as a rule — and 
in less degree the same is true of the other horses of luxury — is an 
excitable animal, nervous, high strung, often vicious. He has little 
of the docility and tractability of the farm-horse. 

The polo-pony is called on to play two periods of fifteen minutes 
each two or three times a week during the polo season ; yet in these 
few minutes of play he earns his oats as honestly as the cab-horse 
does in his ten hours a day. 

The horse should never be pushed to the limit of his endurance. 
It is not necessary to do this to determine when he has worked 
enough. The horse's breathing furnishes an excellent witness to 
his condition. While he is working easily, he breathes without 
effort. When he begins to tire, his breathing becomes more and 
more labored, and his heaving flanks will show the effort he is mak- 
ing to keep up. If the horse is not rested then and allowed to re- 
cuperate, other unmistakable signs of exhaustion will follow. 

"As to nerve-conductibility, its feebleness or its disappearance 
is seen in unequivocal signs on the locomotory apparatus; the mus- 
cular contractions are weaker and slower; the efforts diminish in 
intensity and rapidity; the intervals between the steps are no 
longer equal and in co-ordination; the members meet and strike 
each other; the gait, at first certain, becomes tottering; the head 
hangs low; the subject becomes more and more insensible to the 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. Igo, 

surroundings; soon he falls in a heap and dies at his task. But, 
before reaching this point, his steps are less free, heavy, and un- 
certain; he forges. All these signs should be sufficient, and their 
appearance demands an immediate cessation of the experiment."* 



VICES AND DANGEROUS HABITS OF THE HORSE.f 

"The horse is an animal of a noble and generous disposition, 
and naturally possessed of few vices, although he is occasionally 
met with having a bad and even furious temper, and, as may be 
expected, manifests great variety of natural habit. His vices, how- 
ever, are too often attributable to the effects of improper training 
and to tricks which he is taught by the treatment and folly of his 
groom or keeper. 

"The first breaking-in of the horse should only be intrusted to 
persons of mild disposition, as it is by kind and patient treatment 
alone that we can hope to succeed in rendering this valuable animal 
truly useful and docile. No doubt but in nine cases out of ten, 
where horses exhibit furious or stubborn tempers, that these have 
been produced from the cruelty and ignorance of their first trainers. 

"Restiveness. — The most unpleasant and dangerous of all vices 
possessed by the horse is that of restiveness. Sometimes this pro- 
ceeds from a naturally bad temper and at other times from faulti- 
ness in education. This term includes plunging, rearing, kicking, 
bolting, and general impatience while mounting. A horse with any 
of the above faults can never be depended upon, for, although we 
may use means to counteract a particular vice, whether by com- 
pulsion or gentle measures, he may exhibit that vice when we are 
off our guard and are least expecting it. Force may bring him to 
obedience, and he may succumb to him who has had the determin- 
ation to subjugate him, but, when mounted by another, he is ex- 
tremely liable to break out again. A horse that kicks in harness 

*"The Exterior of the Horse," Gouboux and Barriere, p. 420. 

fFrom "The Complete Modern Farrier," Thomas Brown, M.P.S., thirty- 
first edition, 1900, Chapter XV., pp. 340-360. 



190 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



may be driven with safety by a cautious or experienced driver or 
coachman, but still there is no certainty of his not exhibiting the 
same trick afterwards; indeed, most horses which have been kickers 
return to it again. 

" However high the temper which the horse may exhibit, we 
would recommend that he should be broken from his vices by kind 
and soothing means and these exercised with patience for a con- 
siderable length of time, and force should only be resorted to when 
all other means have failed. 

"There is little chance of reclaiming a bad-tempered horse by 
harsh treatment; indeed, it will always be found to have an op- 
posite tendency. An ill-tempered groom should never be allowed 
to enter a stable, however fit he may be for his business in every 
other respect; for a surly, bullying fellow is sure to frighten horses 
so much that when he enters a stable they will jump from side to 
to side at his approach. Many a scar has been inflicted by such 
a man by using his pitchfork instead of soothing the animal for his 
fault, and if asked how the horse came by the blemish, he invents 
a falsehood to account for it. 

"Rearing. — Rearing is one of the worse vices in a horse, and 
is practiced with the intent to throw the rider off. Sometimes it 
is the result of playfulness, but even then it is a dangerous and 
unpleasant fault. The use of a deep curb and sharp bit will, in 
some instances, cause even a quiet horse to rear, and when this is 
the case, immediate recourse must be had to the snaffle bridle. 

" As in kicking, however, this is seldom or never cured. Horse- 
breakers have attempted it by absurd and dangerous means — 
namefy, that of pulling the horse backward on a piece of soft ground. 
This has ruined many horses. If rearing proceeds from determinedly 
vicious habits, it is a hopeless case, as the animal seldom abandons 
it. Sometimes horses rear from playfulness, which is, however, very 
different from that which proceeds from passion. 

"Kicking. — The vice of kicking is too often caused by horses 
being teased, tickled, and pinched by grooms from wanton mischief 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 191 

or thoughtless folly. The habit becomes habitual with the animals, 
and what was at first only done in play is exercised in anger, and 
often too when one leasts expects it. In short, it is a dangerous 
and incurable vice. 

" Horses with an irritable or fidgety disposition kick the stall 
or bail, and especially during the night. This is a great annoyance 
to other horses in the stable and breaks their rest. Besides, the 
animal is liable to injure himself seriously, and bring on swelled 
hocks or other malady. Mares are more given to this than horses; 
and in either it is difficult to eradicate if once confirmed. 

"The vice is seldom eradicated. Never trust a kicker. 

"Biting. — This trick often proceeds from play, and is taught 
by the folly of grooms or stable-boys teasing the animals. But 
what they have acquired as a sport becomes a fixed habit; and 
when thwarted in any manner they will sometimes bite with great 
severity. Like other vices, this is difficult of cure, and it is but 
seldom they can be really broken of it. Teasing a horse should 
be strictly forbidden. Biting, like other vices, should never be 
taught the animal, as it is easier to avoid it than to effect a cure. 
Gentle treatment is the best suited for all our domestic animals and 
the surest way to command their affections. 

"Seizing the Cheek of the Bit. — Some horses are so cunning as 
to get the cheek of the bit into their mouth, which gives them a 
great command over their rider or driver. There is no cure for 
this; and the only thing that can be done is to fasten a piece of 
round leather, or use some other mechanical contrivance, so that 
the animal can not possibly get the cheek of the bit into his mouth. 
Neither soothing nor beating will remedy this trick, as the horse 
who has once been guilty of it is sure to seize the first opportunity 
to repeat it when anything vexes him. Many very serious acci- 
dents have happened to persons from horses running away with 
the cheek-bit between their teeth. 

"Running Away. — The only thing that can be done in this case 
is to use a strong curb with a sharp bit, and at the same time always 
keep a firm bridle-hand. 



192 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

"Shying. — Of all the vices incidental to the horse, shying is 
one of the worst, and more accidents have happened from it that 
any other of the vices or defects of the horse. Shying proceed^ from 
various causes, but one of the principal is defective vision; timidity 
stands next; and it often proceeds from a disposition to be playful. 
This vice is far less common among high-bred horses than with 
those which are half-bred, although we have met with it in some 
of our first racers. 

"When we have a horse given to shying, our first attention 
should be directed to the cause — that is, whether it proceeds from 
f riskiness, timidity, or defective vision. 

" When shying proceeds from playfulness, it is difficult to judge 
what mode of cure is best to be adopted, because if corrected for it, 
he will associate with any object that diverts his attention the in- 
fliction of punishment, which will tempt him to run away under 
the dread of a flogging; and if caressed for the fault, it is liable 
to induce him to repeat it. But, of two evils, gentle correction 
must be adopted, and rather to pass by the object than to take him 
up to it. He should also be spoken to sharply. 

"If shying proceeds from fear of new objects, the true way to 
correct him of this is not to force him up to them, but to pat him 
and to soothe him, but avoid beating him; and take care to pass 
the objects of his fear again and again, always going nearer to them 
every time you pass. This will familiarize him to them. Seeing 
that these are harmless, he will soon learn to pass by unnoticed 
any novel object which he may meet with upon a road. 

"When an animal is given to shying from defective sight, the 
only method to effect a cure is to take him up to it, and, in the act 
of doing so, he must be coaxed to approach it, and on no account 
must he be beaten; and, although it sometimes happens that the 
horse will manifest great reluctance to do so, he should be perse- 
vered with and not allowed to proceed until he has been close to 
the object of his fear. After he has been a few times thus treated, 
he will soon learn to pass with indifference any object which he 
may meet. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 193 

"Restiveness, and Resisting Being Mounted. — Some horses 
which possess a lively or impatient temper manifest a desire to 
start off before the rider can get seated in the saddle. Indeed, 
some will attempt to set off whenever the foot is put in the stirrup. 
This is a troublesome and dangerous fault, even with the most 
expert horsemen, and especially so to those who are inexperienced 
or infirm. Horses sometimes become so cunning that they know 
a good from a bad horseman, and finding they are either to be or 
actually mounted by a timid or indifferent rider, will endeavor to 
throw him off, or bolt away before he is properly seated. 

"When a horse has this propensity, he should be mounted 
quickly and without fear, and not allowed to proceed on his journey 
until he is perfectly quiet. Instances are not few where horses 
that are generally pleasant and easy to mount become restive when 
too high fed and having too little work. The remedy for this is 
obvious. 

"Vicious While Cleaning. — Very great differences exist in the 
temper exhibited by horses under the operation of cleaning. Some 
that are steady and quiet on the road and in the field can not be 
cleaned without great hazard to their grooms as well as the danger 
of laming themselves. This often proceeds from a very sensitive 
skin and at other times from their grooms having inflicted severe 
chastisement on some former occasion when cleaning. Besides, ill- 
disposed grooms, by teasing the animals, or currying them with a 
broken-toothed comb or uneven-surfaced brush, teach them this 
bad habit, and have even a delight in seeing the animals show their 
teeth; and this is continued until ; t becomes a fixed vice. If a 
change of grooms takes place, what was done partly in play is then 
manifested in anger, and serious injuries have been inflicted upon 
the unsuspecting stranger. It therefore behooves grooms to be 
cautious how they handle a strange horse. 

"There is much variety in the sensibility of the skin of horses, 
some being so tender that moderate rubbing gives them uneasiness, 
while others are so much the reverse that the whip hardly excites it. 



194 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

It will not be difficult to overcome this vicious habit. When the 
groom discovers it, the best plan is to use a gentle hand while clean- 
ing, and lean lightly on those parts which seem most sensitive; 
avoid punishing the horse for exhibiting restiveness, and he will soon 
lose all recollection of the former ill-treatment which he had received 
from his groom, and become quiet and steady. 

" Crib-Biting. — Crib-biting is one of the worst habits which a 
horse can acquire, and is seldom or never cured. The horse seizes 
the manger with his teeth while he stretches his neck forward, and 
after some spasmodic action of the throat, a slight grunting sound 
is uttered, which appears to be accompanied by a drawing-in of air. 
The cause of this trick is not yet well understood; and whether it 
proceeds from a bad habit, or a defect in the false palate and back 
part of the mouth, still remains undiscovered, and therefore we 
shall not indulge in any speculative opinions as to its origin. 

"One serious effect of this trick is the wearing down of the 
teeth; and instances have occurred where they have been broken. 
It has likewise been found that crib-biters are more liable to colic 
than those without this vice. 

"It has been found that crib-biting is acquired by horses being 
in the stable with one which has the trick. Among the expedients 
which have been resorted to for the cure of crib-biting, the edge 
of the manger has been lined with iron, also with sheepskin be- 
smeared with aloes, tar, and other disagreeable substances, but all 
with no effect. The only thing in this case is to resort to a pre- 
ventive, and that will be found in the use of a strap tightly buckled 
around the neck, which has the effect of compressing the windpipe 
and rendering it impossible to resort to it; but no sooner is the 
strap removed than the horse recommences his old habit, so that 
it must be constantly worn to be of use. But the continued use of 
it is apt to produce irritation in the trachea, and this will terminate 
in the affection termed roaring, A. five or six months' run in a field 
has been tried without proving a remedy. Crib-biters are generally 
in low condition. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. I95 

"A muzzle barred across the bottom will prevent crib-biting. 
This must be made only of sufficient width to allow full action to 
the lips, so that the animal may pull his hay from the rack and 
eat his corn, but so close as not to admit of him grasping the edge 
of the manger. Crib-biting is legally considered an unsoundness. 

"Wind-Sucking. — This is so intimately connected with crib- 
biting that it may properly be considered a modification of it, as 
it is accompanied by a want of condition and the same bending 
of the neck, with the head drawn inward, is manifested, and the 
horse alternately opens and closes his lips, and a sound is produced 
similar to sucking air. The remedies attempted have been tying 
up the head of the horse, except when feeding, and the application 
of a muzzle with sharp spikes bending towards the neck, which will 
prick when drawing in his head. 

"Not Lying Down. — Horses are sometimes prone to standing 
constantly, and some only lie down once in a fortnight, or even a 
longer period. When this is the case, they are generally liable to 
swellings in the limbs, and seldom able to go through much work. 
Such horses should, if possible, be put in a stable by themselves 
and left at liberty, and a well-made bed will sometimes tempt them 
to lie down. No means can be adopted to force the animal to 
take rest by lying down. When it is not possible to place him in 
a stable alone, an empty box should be constructed, so that he 
may be left for the night unhaltered in it. 

"Pawing. — This is a disagreeable and very bad habit, and pro- 
ceeds from an irritable temper. Bruised feet and sprained legs too 
often proceed from it. The shoes are quickly worn down in front, 
and the litter considerably wasted. 

"Weaving.— Animals of an impatient, irritable temper, that 
dislike confinement in a stable, will sometimes keep moving their 
head, neck, and body to and fro, like the motion of a weaver's 
shuttle. These have been called 'weavers/ Such horses seldom or 
never carry much flesh, from their fretful temper and incessant 
movement. The only preventive is to tie the head close up, except 
whenlfeeding. " 



196 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

REWARD AND PUNISHMENT. 

In training and handling a horse, full advantage should be 
taken of his lack of intelligence and his acute memory. To make 
a horse understand in his training that he is wanted to back, for 
instance, the rider must, in the first place, adopt a set of signals 
that mechanically suggest the idea of backing. The horse is stand- 
ing quietly. The rider's legs are closed, lower legs slightly in rear, 
to induce the horse to draw his legs under him. The knees are 
not closed, unless he wavers to the right or left. The hand is low- 
ered and the rein drawn in. He arches his neck, bringing the mass 
of his head and neck nearer to his body. At the same time the 
rider leans back. The shifting of the mass of the horse and rider 
to the rear throws the center of gravity to the rear. The horse 
has " drawn his legs under him" at the suggestion of his rider's 
heels, his balance is insecure in consequence, and he steps back. 
He has done what the rider wishes, and, at the instant of yielding, 
the rider should encourage him with hand and voice. The second 
time the request is made of the horse by the same signals he steps 
back more readily, and should instantly be rewarded. Finally, 
after repeated trials, the horse learns that, when both of the rider's 
legs are brought back with equal pressure, and he is reined straight 
back, he is expected to back, because he remembers that when he 
did respond in that manner to those signals he was rewarded. 

Horses do not recognize persons; they do remember rewards 
and punishment. The author has often noticed, in the riding-hall 
at West Point, where the same horse does duty for two cadets on 
alternate days, that certain horses, as the platoon is marched into 
the hall, appear to be looking for someone. The cadet to whom 
each horse is assigned approaches him, and the horse makes every 
sign of recognition, and is rewarded with an apple or a bit of sugar. 
It seems almost unquestionable that he has recognized an old friend. 
The next day the other cadet to whom he is assigned approaches 
him; the horse gives the same signs of looking for someone, then of 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. I97 

recognition, and then of disappointment. The second cadet is not 
his friend of the apple or sugar; it was not the friend, after all, that 
he was seeking, but the dainty that the friend was bringing. 

It is well for horse-users that horses are indifferent to the iden- 
tity of the persons handling them, otherwise they might object to 
a change of riders. The greater the intelligence of a horse, the more 
care must be shown in his training and use. A dull horse becomes 
sluggish under abuse; an intelligent one becomes vicious. 

The tone of voice used by a rider has great influence on a horse, 
if not used at inappropriate times. It is of no use to be constantly 
talking to a horse, but a word spoken in a sharp, high tone will 
startle him, while one in a softer, lower tone will soothe and steady 
him. Like all other aids in horsemanship, the voice should be used 
consistently and at the critical moment. 

The whole education of the horse is based on the principles 
of reward and punishment. No animal is more sensitive to ap- 
probation than a normal horse. Observe a young horse, that has 
not been spoiled in training, when he is learning a new lesson. 
The attitude of his head and ears, the expression of his eyes, show 
that he is watching the aids closely. After successfully executing 
a command of his rider, if the latter pats his neck and speaks 
kindly to him — " makes much of him" — he shows his apprecia- 
tion of the attention by his expression. The rider should be care- 
ful to give the neck a good, generous slap — not enough to hurt, 
but sufficient to attract his attention, and positive enough to show 
no timorousness. Horses quickly learn whether or not their riders 
are timid, and are very quick to take advantage of the occasion 
and follow their own inclination. It often seems as if an old 
troop-horse enjoys the fears of the recruit. This is also shown in 
the horses used for the instruction of the cadets of the third class 
at the Military Academy. Usually only the quietest, steadiest 
horses are chosen for this work. Some of them plod stoically around 
the hall, impervious to anything the cadet can do. Others take 
iberties with their riders, in an apparent spirit of play, that they 



198 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

would never think of showing if the rider were a first-class man. 
For this reason the pat on the neck should be positive, reassuring 
the horse that the rider knows what he is about and appreciates the 
work of his horse. It should be accompanied by the voice. 

There is only one instant when punishment should be admin- 
istered to a horse — that is the instant the fault was committed, and 
punishment should never be given in anger. The horse does not 
reason; he feels and he remembers. The horse can not understand 
why he is punished. What he knows is that certain acts of his are 
met with reward, certain others with punishment, and, if properly 
handled, he will do the things he was doing when he was rewarded 
and avoid the things he was doing when he was punished. For 
this reason, when a horse rears, he should be struck with the whip 
while he is in the air, not after he comes down. If he kicks, he 
should be struck while actually kicking. If struck after the kick is 
finished, he will be very apt to kick again. The cause and the 
effect must come together. 

James Fillis, probably the greatest high -school rider of all time, 
says:* "The great art in breaking is to reward and punish in an 
appropriate manner; in order to do which we must seize the exact 
moment of obedience or resistance. Here we must bear in mind 
the fundamental principle of breaking — namely, that reward should 
follow obedience as quickly as punishment follows disobedience. " 



*" Breaking and Riding," by James Fillis (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902) 
p. 112, footnote. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



THE CARE OF SICK HORSES. 

The prescriptions and methods of treatment contained in this 
chapter are given by Farrier Edmund Lee, U. S. M. A. Detachment 
of Cavalry, who, for more than twenty years, had the care of the 
sick horses in the stable of that detachment. Probably nowhere 
in the service are horses put to severer tests than here. The stable 
where he has done his work was overcrowded, damp, dark, and 
badly ventilated. The horses' work is of the most trying charac- 
ter — part of the year it is violently severe, at other times there is 
nothing at all for half of them to do. In a word, the horses were 
badly stabled and irregularly worked. As a result, there was much 
sickness, especially of the lungs and digestive apparatus. The vet- 
erinarian visited the stable every third day and prescribed treat- 
ment for the horses on sick-list at the time of his visit. All emer- 
gency cases and all the nursing fell on Farrier Lee. In the midst 
of all these difficulties he has faithfully nursed and " doctored" the 
sick and the cripples and has prolonged their usefulness as no vet- 
erinarian could have done without an equally faithful nurse. 

These prescriptions are simple, and, as far as drugs can be, safe. 
They have the merit of having been tested by many years of suc- 
cessful use. 

In these prescriptions a teaspoon is one fluid-dram; a table- 
spoon, half a fluid-ounce. Medicines should always be weighed or 
measured as accurately as circumstances will permit. 

The troubles most commonly met with in a cavalry stable are 
sprains, open sores, cuts, thrush, scratches, sore backs, colic, and 
colds. Polo-ponies are laid up more often with sprains, sore backs, 
bruises, and ringbones than by any other cause. 

For sprains, a lotion made of four tablespoons of lead acetate 
and four tablespoons of tincture of opium, mixed with one quart 



200 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

of water, is very soothing. This is a stronger lotion than the usual 
white lotion, which has but two tablespoons of each drug. Opium 
is a sedative and acts to relieve pain; lead acetate is astringent and 
tends to contract the capillaries and to cool the part by limiting the 
supply of blood to it. 

This lotion is applied by soaking absorbent cotton with it and 
fastening it to the part with a loose bandage. The bandage is kept 
wet by pouring the lotion on several times daily. This lotion is 
better for sprained tendons and ligaments than for sprained muscles. 
For the latter, and for sore throats as well, a very efficient stimu- 
lating liniment is made of a pint of linseed or olive oil, four table- 
spoons each of water of ammonia, turpentine, and opium. This is to 
be thoroughly mixed and applied by hand-rubbing; never internally. 

The oil is slow to evaporate, penetrating, and carries the other 
drugs with it into the affected tissues. The water of ammonia and 
turpentine stimulate a more active circulation, and the opium allays 
the pain. 

For cuts and open sores, use an ointment composed of a heap- 
ing tablespoon of oxide of zinc, rubbed up with one-fourth of a 
teaspoon of glycerine, four tablespoons of vaseline, and thirty drops 
of carbolic acid. The zinc oxide can also be dusted dry on the 
wound. The wound should be first well washed and dried. 

Oxide of zone is an antiseptic — that is, it destroys the germs 
of disease, putrefaction, or fermentation. It is obnoxious to flies. 
Carbolic acid is also an antiseptic; the glycerine and vaseline are 
added to blend the two into a smooth ointment. A cut or an open 
sore that is not infected needs only to be kept quiet and clean to 
heal. The principal object of this ointment is to keep disease germs 
from the cut and to keep it from drying by too rapid evaporation. 
The latter is accomplished by the vaseline, which evaporates very 
slowly. 

In the treatment of open sores or cuts, every effort should be 
made to prevent infection and the consequent suppuration. It may 
be safely asserted that suppuration in an open wound or sore is 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 201 

always the result of neglect. Abscesses and internal ulcers become 
infected by germs brought to them, usually by the blood itself. A 
severe bruise, for instance, may develop into an infected sore with- 
out any noticeable external sign of its presence, but a cut can always 
be seen, and, if the antiseptics and suitable bandages are at hand, 
it should not be allowed to fester. An excellent antiseptic wash is 
made of one part of carbolic acid to twenty parts of water. This 
will smart when applied. The addition of one part of glycerine 
will allay the smarting to a certain extent, without destroying the 
germ-destroying properties of the carbolic acid. 

Thrush is a direct result, usually, of bad stable management, 
but as it does not cause lameness or become prominently noticeable 
until it is in quite an advanced stage, it is frequently found in old, 
poorly drained stables with bad floors, in spite of careful attention 
to the horse's feet. 

A horse affected with thrush should be taken to the black- 
smith's shop, where all the ragged and diseased portions of the frog 
should be cut away. The frog should then be cleaned thoroughly 
and sprayed with equal parts of carbolic acid and water — a very 
radical treatment, but one that Farrier Tee swears by. The frog is 
then dusted with powdered bluestone and packed with pine tar 
and oakum. A leather sole is then laid on and held in place by the 
shoe. This treatment will be of no avail unless the unsanitary 
cause of the disease is removed; it will stay its progress, but it will 
not cure it. 

Another very good treatment for thrush is to apply a powder 
composed of equal parts of sulphate of zinc, bluestone, and sulphate 
of iron. The zinc sulphate is an astringent and it also destroys the 
diseased tissues; the bluestone has much the same caustic effect 
and it is also a tonic. This powder is dusted on the frog, which is 
then packed with oakum, held in place with a bandage, a leather 
boot, or a leather sole put on under the shoe. 

For sore backs, use the familiar " white lotion" — four table- 
spoons each of sulphate of zinc and carbolic acid iu one quart of 



202 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

water. The carbolic acid is of more value if the skin is chafed than 
when it is unbroken. Its virtue lies principally in its germ-destroying 
power. This lotion is rubbed by hand on the saddle-gall, if the 
skin is not broken, and applied to an open sore with a sponge. 

If the sore back degenerates into a sitfast, the indurated, scabby 
portion should be cut out by a veterinarian, and the wound of 
operation then treated like an ordinary wound. 

Care should be taken that sore backs and sitfasts are not chafed; 
no treatment will cure them as long as the conditions causing them 
continue to exist. 

Colic is often caused in horses that are exhausted by permitting 
them to drink too freely of cold water. This is a spasmodic colic, 
very painful, and a sedative and stimulant is needed. Two table- 
spoons of cannabis Indica (Indian hemp), five drops of morphine, 
thirty drops of tincture of capsicum, mixed with a pint of water 
and given at one dose, will usually give relief; if not, repeat the 
dose in about an hour. 

The cannabis Indica soothes the nerves and so lessens the 
spasms of the muscles, whose actions are governed by the nerves. 
Morphine is a sedative, and the capsicum is a stimulant to restore 
the circulation in the walls of the stomach. 

Colic caused by indigestion — flatulent colic — is treated with 
four tablespoons of aromatic spirits of ammonia, two tablespoons 
of sweet spirits of nitre, mixed in a pint of water and given in one 
dose. Repeat in an hour, if necessary. 

Aromatic spirits of ammonia is useful to expel gas from the 
stomach and intestines; it is also a safe stimulant. Nitre is also 
a stimulant that acts on the kidneys; it neutralizes irritating acids. 
Its frequent use is very debilitating and injurious to the kidneys. 

For obstruction colic, four tablespoons of oil of turpentine in 
a pint of raw linseed oil, given at one dose, will usually expel the 
obstruction. 

It should not be very difficult to distinguish between the three 
kinds of colic mentioned above. The stablemen will know if the 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 203 

horse has drunk too much cold water. The presence of fresh dung 
in the stall will argue against obstruction colic, and if the distress 
is not caused by cold water, the assumption in this case would be 
that the horse was suffering from colic resulting from indigestion. 

For coughs, a useful mixture is made of two tablespoons of 
oil of tar, two tablespoons of glycerine, and two tablespoons of 
chloroform, mixed in one pint of raw linseed oil. Two tablespoons 
given two or three times a day is the dose. 

For coughs and colds, nursing will do more than drugs. The 
patient should be kept warm—with blankets in the winter — dry 
and away from draughts. He should have hay in small quantities 
and frequently changed, for the discharge from his nose will soil 
it if left before him long. He should have hot steamed bran-mashes 
and have constant access to water. The disease will then run its 
course, in the usual case, in a few days. Exercise should be avoided. 
His nostrils and lips should be frequently washed. 

Scratches, whose seat is in the back of the pastern, is a disease 
that is brought about by the same conditions that produce chapped 
hands in human a beings. The part affected should be carefully 
washed and dried and kept greased with an ointment made of one 
part of oxide of zinc to ten parts of cosmoline, vaseline, or lanolin. 
This dressing should be changed frequently, by thoroughly cleansing 
the part and re-applying the ointment. The horse can be used, 
in mild cases, during the treatment. Severer cases demand rest 
as a part of the treatment, because bending the pastern keeps the 
cracks open. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



PREVENTABLE DISEASES. 

Preventable diseases are those that result from improper care 
or use. A large proportion of the diseases that a horse is liable to 
comes under this head. 

They may be grouped in two general classes: diseases due to 
bad shoeing, and diseases due to bad stable management. 

Under the first head come, more especially, diseases in the feet 
and legs, manifested by lameness. 

Bad shoeing is the commonest cause of all varieties of diseases 
of this region. If, in fitting the shoe, the wall is not rasped down 
evenly all around, if the shoe is too small for the foot, and the crust 
is rasped off to cover up the defect, if the bars are cut away, if the 
shoe is too high behind so that the frog can not strike the ground, 
the result will be felt in the horse's action. 

The following diseases are usually caused by improper shoeing, 
or may be prevented by proper shoeing: speedy cut, splints, strained 
tendons, broken knees, ringbones, sidebones, treads, brushing, corns, 
and cracks. 

When a horse is laid up for any reason, his shoes should be 
removed at once. This permits a freer growth of the horn, it gives 
the frog a chance to get a bearing, and it is a rest to the foot. The 
plantar surface of the foot should be rasped smooth and the edges 
rounded off whenever the shoe is taken off, to prevent the wall 
from splitting. * 

There is no better way to build up a horse or to keep one in 
health than to allow him an occasional run at grass. A horse that 
is a bit run down in flesh will be much benefited by having his shoes 
taken off and allowed to run for a few days in a pasture. The 
natural exercise, the green food, and the freedom will combine to 
produce most beneficial results. Every horse should be turned out 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 205 

in an enclosure of some sort every day, if only for an hour or two, 
whenever possible. Horses brought in hot from work and turned 
loose will cool out slowly with no damage to themselves. They 
will take enough exercise to keep from getting chilled. 

Pasturing is especially good for diseases of the tendons, liga- 
ments, and bones, and of the breathing apparatus. A horse with 
a docked tail should not be turned out to grass or in a paddock 
during fly-time; he must be given his exercise in another way. He 
will be so tormented by the flies that no benefit will result from his 
freedom. 

The condition of a horse — that is, its state of being generally — 
is the result of stable management. In a good stable, where clean 
stalls are the rule, where good forage is fed, where the water is pure, 
where the horses are thoroughly groomed, and which is kept dry 
and fully ventilated, where the doors are wide and high, and all 
the stable fittings are arranged so that there are no projections to 
injure the horses, there will be need of the veterinary surgeon 
but rarely. 

A horse is said to be in good condition when he is in vigorous 
health and strength, and in hard condition when, by proper care and 
exercise, he is in shape to make his supreme effort, as should be 
the case before a race. 

Exercise is just as necessary to the well-being of a horse as 
to man. Every horse that is kept in a stable should be exercised 
at least two hours a day to keep him well. Lack of exercise will 
weaken a horse as much as overwork. The amount of work ex- 
pected of a horse should depend upon his condition, and this depends 
as much upon the exercise he has been getting as upon his diet or 
sanitary surroundings. A horse that has been turned out to pas- 
ture will take enough exercise to keep well, but will not keep in 
working condition. So a horse that has been convalescing on grass, 
after a month or two, may seem to be in fine condition, but, if put 
to work, will be found to sweat freely after slight exertion and to 
tire easily. His condition should be hardened by gradual work 
or exercise. 



206 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

Neglect of sanitary care of the feet, by allowing the horse to 
stand in manure, or in urine-soaked mud, will bring on thrush, 
scratches, and other diseases of the soft tissues of the feet. 

Neglect of grooming is responsible for loss of condition, thus 
making the horse liable to disease. Much of the excretion of waste 
tissues is done through the pores. If this way of excretion is closed 
because of the clogging of the pores, the waste tissues will accumu- 
late near the surface, impeding the flow of blood in the capillaries, 
the hair will appear lusterless and dead, through being badly nour- 
ished, and the dead cells of the skin will fill the coat. The horse will 
appear listless and irritable. His vitality will be low and he will 
be ready to receive and foster the germs of disease. If he is thor- 
oughly groomed, the circulation will be stimulated instead of re- 
tarded, excretion will go on properly, and the coat will show its 
healthy condition and that of the skin beneath by its smooth luster. 
Grooming does not benefit the coat by smoothing it, but by cleaning 
the skin. The smoothing of the coat is the merest incidental. 

Bad forage is responsible for diseases of respiration and diges- 
tion. Dusty hay is hay that has not been properly cured and that 
breaks up into minute dust-like particles. These particles are sharp 
and irritating to the mucous membrane of the lungs, and render it 
liable to disease. Musty or sour hay, grain, or bran produce indi- 
gestion and, ultimately, colic. 

Reference has been made to the order of watering and feeding. 
First water, than hay, then grain — no water for at least two hours 
after grain. A horse that has been all day at work comes in at 
night ravenously hungry. If he finds his oats in the manger, he 
will rush at them, bolting them without chewing them. With their 
hard husk, which is mostly cellulose, unbroken, they pass through 
the stomach undigested, to lie in the intestines read}^ to ferment 
and cause intestinal disorders. If he is fed his hay first, he will, 
of necessity, eat it slowly. When, an hour or so later, his grain is 
given him, the edge of his hunger is broken, and he will be hours 
at his oats; they will be perfectly digested and will do^him a 
maximum of good. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 207 

Dampness and lack of ventilation in stables predisposes the 
horses to diseases of respiration and to rheumatism. These con- 
ditions, also, by lowering the vitality of horses, make them fit sub- 
jects for other diseases, especially those of germ origin. 

Every stable should be provided with ample openings for the 
admission of air and for the escape of foul air. The fresh-air open- 
ings should be low down and so arranged that no current of air 
blows directly on the horses. The escape of the foul air should be 
arranged for at the highest part of the stable, and should be so 
made that rain or snow can not enter the stable. 

Carelessness in the arrangement of stables is accountable for 
many injuries from which horses should be immune. Low, narrow 
doors account for poll-evil and broken hips. Boards splintered by 
kicks or gnawed through leave rough ends to scratch and blemish 
horses. Swing-bars whose chains are patched with baled-hay wire, 
and prominent hooks, nails, or latches where horses might strike 
themselves, may inflict wounds that are trifling enough in them- 
selves, but when located about the knees or hocks reduce materi- 
ally the value of a horse, on account of the suspicions aroused by 
their scars. 

Bad saddling and badly fitting bridles put horses out of business 
by causing saddle-galls and sore mouths, that just a little care would 
effectively prevent. 

Contagious diseases are frequently allowed to spread, more 
through ignorance and carelessness than for any other reason. A 
horse with any discharge from his nose, however slight, should be 
isolated at once. He should not be turned loose with other horses, 
or watered where they are watered, or have his equipment mixed 
with theirs. His stall should be disinfected, and his equipment 
sterilized after his recovery. 

Skin diseases, such as mange, ringworm, scratches, grease, and 
those scurfy diseases at the bend of the hock and knee, known as 
sallenders and mallenders, and the presence of vermin in a horse's 
coat, are the surest indices of bad stable management. 



208 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

As a general rule, a horse of good conformation that is prop- 
erly fed and watered, thoroughly groomed and stabled in a sanitary 
manner, will keep well. Hard work, unless pushed to an unreason- 
able degree, will fatigue a horse, will at times greatly exhaust him, 
but, unless his condition has been lowered by some preventable 
cause, no permanent injury will result. 

The horse is made for fast or hard work. He is admirably 
fashioned for it, but the natural laws of his existence must be obeyed 
or he will break down before his time — not from overwork, but from 
neglect. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



IRREGULARITIES OF ACTION. 

Irregularities of action result from disease or defects of con- 
formation. A well-put-up horse that is sound follows the usual law 
of movement. 

The natural gaits — modes of progression — of the horse are the 
walk, trot, and gallop. Some horses have a fourth gait, the amble — 
pacing, but it is usually an acquired gait. These gaits a horse 
assumes, when free to follow his own inclination, without any 
training or preparation. 

The walk is a square gait, where each foot is planted in suc- 
cession. The body is supported all the time. 

The trot is a diagonal gait; the feet are planted in pairs : right 
fore and left hind, left fore and right hind. In changing support 
from one diagonal to another there is a slight period of suspension, 
when the body is wholly unsupported. Aside from this brief in- 
stant, the body is supported alternately by one diagonal pair or 
the other, and never by more than two feet. 

In the gallop the feet are planted in succession. One fore foot 
is constantly leading — that is, planted in front of the other, and 
the leading fore foot bears the weight of the body for a longer time 
than any other. The body is advanced by a series of leaps and 
is much of the time in suspension. 

In all of these gaits the feet should move in parallel planes, 
should be planted squarely, and should not strike each other. 

In the walk there should be no halt in the stride. The beats 
caused by the planting of the feet should be regular and followed 
by the same intervals. 

In the trot each diagonal pair of legs should sustain the weight 
of the body for the same length of time. 

In the gallop the horse should lead with equal freedom with 



210 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



each fore foot; his feet should be well bunched during the leap, 
and well extended in receiving the weight of the body and in throw- 
ing it forward. The canter differs from the gallop very little; it 
is the slow gallop. The leap is shorter, the leading foot is not 




Figure 107. — Walking John at the Walk. 

Courtesy of Major-General Leonard Wood. 

advanced so far. The body is in suspension for a shorter time. 
The merging of the canter into the gallop is imperceptible. When 
a horse changes from the walk to the trot and from the trot to the 
canter, the rider is conscious of the instant the change is made, but 
as the gait increases to the gallop and the racing gallop, or run, he 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



211 



is conscious merely of an increased speed, not of a change in the 
arrangement of footfalls. 

There are two artificial modifications of the pace: the rack, 
where the hind foot foots it ahead of its leading fore foot; and the 




Figure 108— Walking John at the Gallop (just before the leap). 

Courtesy of Major-General Leonard Wood. 

single foot, where each foot foots it independently of the others. 
The single foot is a very easy gait indeed for the rider. 

The trot has also two artificial modifications: the fox trot, 
when the fore foot foots it ahead of its diagonal hind foot; and 



212 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

the running walk, where the hind foot foots it ahead of its diagonal 
fore foot. 

The Kentucky saddle-horse has all of these gaits and the walk, 
trot, amble, and gallop as well. The Kentucky breeder resents 
having the gaits above described styled artificial, because he has 
bred his strain of horses to possess them naturally. They are so 
termed because a horse must either be bred or trained to possess 
them.* 

Lameness may be defined as an alteration of action adopted 
by an animal in an effort to avoid pain. Most sound horses comply 
with the rules for the natural gaits given above. Their heads are 
carried uniformly, without nodding. If a horse is seen to dwell 
longer on one leg or pair of legs than another, if he nods his head 
at each step, if he shortens his gallop, or is stiff in his action, it is 
because there is pain in one of his legs and he is trying to keep his 
weight off it or to keep from straightening it. He is lame. 

The trot is the best gait in which to locate lameness. The 
walk is too slow; three legs are always on the ground in that gait, 
and, unless very lame indeed, it will be difficult to locate it at a 
walk. The gallop is too complex and too rapid a gait for this pur- 
pose. The trot, on the contrary, is simple and easily analyzed 
It is not too rapid for careful observation. One hind foot and the 
diagonally opposite fore foot bear the whole weight of the body 
at any instant. 

In trying a horse for lameness, he is trotted on hard, smooth 
ground. If, in trotting, the weight is held on one diagonal pair 
longer than on the other, it is because bearing the weight on the 
latter pair is painful, and the horse transfers it as quickly as pos- 
sible to the sound pair. The lameness is thus located in one of 
the two legs. 

The front legs, in addition to bearing their share of the weight 
of the body, must support, unaided, the weight of the head. When 



*See Captain Hayes, " Points of the Horse," and Gouboux and Barriere, 
Exterior of the Horse," for complete discussions of the subject of gaits. 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 213 

a horse raises his head, he shortens the lever-arm, the neck, and 
thus throws the center of gravity of his body further back. This 
relieves the fore legs of part of their load and puts it on the hin(£ 
legs. By lowering the head the lever-arm is lengthened, the center 
of gravity comes forward, and the front legs relieve the hind ones of 
part of their burden. So, having located the lameness in one pair 
of legs, if, when that pair is supporting the body, the head is down, 
the lameness is behind; if the head is up, the lameness is in front. 

If he is lame in both hind or both front legs, he will travel in 
a stilty, stiff manner, and will, when lame in front, keep his head 
higher, and when lame behind, lower, than is his natural poise when 
at rest. 

A horse usually turns on his front feet. If he is quickly turned 
and is noticed to dwell more on one foot than on another, it is an 
indication of unsoundness in the favored foot. This test will some- 
times assist in locating obscure cases of lameness in front. 

If, after noticing these irregularities of action on hard ground, 
the horse is trotted on soft ground, and he travels true, the sus- 
picion that he is unsound, and lame in consequence, is confirmed. 
If, on the contrary, he has the same peculiarity of gait, the irregu- 
larity is probably due to his conformation or to some habit. 

Unsoundness in front may sometimes not be detected in the 
horse's action, when his attitude while at rest will give a sure in- 
dication of it. A horse that is sound always stands with his front 
feet equally advanced. By a provision of Nature, the weight- 
bearing muscles of his front legs are so arranged that when he 
stands square in front they are at rest. This is not so behind. 
There he is constantly shifting his burden; one leg supports it 
while the other rests. 

If a horse is observed while standing to advance one front 
foot, or draw it back, resting it on toe or heel (pointing it, as it is 
called), he is unsound. If he rests the foot on the toe, it is to relieve 
pain at the heel, to straighten out the flexing ligaments, and the 
inference is that he has navicular disease. If he rests the foot on 



214 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

the heel, it is to relieve pressure at the toe, or the laminae, and the 
inference is that he is foundered, or, more rarely, that the extensor 
tendons are pressing on a bony tumor, and he has ringbone. 

Frequently a horse stands level in the stall and goes lame in 
front on hard ground. This is never the case in diseases of the 
soft tissues, but is caused by incipient bone disease. 

If a horse is lame behind and the location of the disease is 
not apparent, the services of a skilled veterinarian should be called 
in. It is difficult enough to properly diagnose lameness in front; 
he is skilled indeed who can do so behind, 

The general rule, that obscure lameness behind is in the hock, 
and in front in the foot, or in the ligaments and tendons, is a safe 
one for the amateur to follow. 

Many horses, through lack of symmetry, have peculiar faults 
of action not properly called lameness, though resembling it. They 
can be usually corrected by proper shoeing or by the use of boots 
or straps. 



CHAPTER XX. 



JUDGING HORSES AND THE EXAMINATION 
FOR SOUNDNESS. 

In the pages that precede an effort has been made to indicate 
the general conformation of well-built horses, and those diseases 
and defects to which they are most liable. The application of the 
theory of what suitable conformation and soundness are will come 
when the student is called on to purchase a horse for himself. 

The general public is suspicious of horse-dealers, more because 
of its ignorance of the physical and civil laws that relate to the 
soundness of horses than for any other reason. For that reason 
a brief investigation into the subject will spare the purchaser much 
annoyance and mortification. 

The law of warranty has been briefly stated in the opening 
chapter, page 29. Reference to that will convince the reader that 
the examination of the horse he is going to buy and his trial had 
best be very thorough and complete, as it will prove a very difficult 
matter to establish the existence of any unsoundness or defect prior 
to the date of purchase, in a legal manner, to the satisfaction of 
a court. 

A purchaser must not expect to find many perfect horses; 
there are few such, and, excepting young horses, the very fact of 
their being without blemishes argues that they possess some un- 
desirable quality that has limited their use, and that will probably 
always limit it. He can, however, learn to recognize those glaring 
defects that make horses especially undesirable to own, and to 
discriminate between them and lesser defects that can be overcome, 
or that will not interfere with the use to which the horse is to be put. 

It is a surprising fact that most purchasers want to buy a fat 
horse. This is a failing that, to be successful, dealers must meet 
by fattening their horses into what is called selling condition. Horses 
in this fat, smooth condition can not be put to hard work at once; 



216 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

they are more subject to inflammatory diseases than when properly 
hardened to their work, and, more than all, the fat covers up defects 
of conformation that would be apparent in working condition. 

It is always best to see the horjse you are thinking of buying in 
his own stall, when he has not been prepared for your visit. You 
can then inspect him for such stable vices as cribbing, weaving, 
or kicking. 

Cribbing is an injurious habit of seizing with the teeth the 
manger, halter-strap, or woodwork of the stall, or any similar thing 
within his reach, and, at the same time, drawing in his breath with 
a peculiar noise, known as wind-sucking. It is usually a sign of 
digestive derangement. A crib-biter can always be detected by an 
examination of his incisors. The anterior portion of the tables is 
worn down much more than the posterior. This is one of the few 
vices horses have that is taught others by example. 

Weaving is a stable vice manifested by swinging from side to 
side in the stall. It is rarely more serious than an indication of a nerv- 
ous, restless nature. It is a frequent accompaniment of crib-biting. 

Kicking is such a serious vice, and so difficult to eradicate, 
that no horse should be knowingly purchased that possesses it. It 
is often shown by the appearance of the woodwork of the stalls 
near the heel-posts. A horse given to kicking in the stable usually 
shows scarred heels and capped hocks. 

It should also be noticed whether he points a toe in the stall. 
The meaning of this symptom has been sufficiently explained. 

The inspection in the stall finished, have the horse brought into 
the light; if his general appearance is satisfactory, and he seems 
suitable for the purpose to which it is proposed to put him, his 
age should be verified, and his sight tested in a general way. 

Assuring yourself in these three regards, apparent general suit- 
ability, age, and vision, the more critical examination is begun. A 
note-book and a pencil should be at hand to take down such de- 
partures from normal conditions as you may notice. 

First notice color, sex, and peculiar markings, so as to be able 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 



217 



p 


■jit 


1 


'"' ■ ?? "4 ' ^ ,; : ' %m • ' ' " ' 






-*-^-r; V 



Figure 109. — A Horse Jumping Naturally. 
Note the poise of his head, and the position of the rider's legs. 

to identify the horse later on. Then proceed to a more critical 
examination of the eyes. 

The best light is that coming directly from above, from a sky- 
light or a high window in an otherwise darkened room. If such a 



218 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

place is not available, bring him to the stable door, closing all aper- 
tures behind him. After placing him directly facing the source of 
light, stand behind his shoulder and look through each eye, from 
side to side, with great care, noting everything, no matter how 
slight, that interferes with their perfect transparency. A horse that 
has any disease, or any mark of disease, in the eye, no matter how 
slight, is not a sound horse. After the examination of the anterior 
portion of the eye, from behind, stand in front of him and compare 
closely both eyes, to see if there is perfect clearness in each, that 
the pupils are of equal size, and that they dilate and contract equally. 
If any suspicions are aroused, no matter how slight, of the presence 
of cataract, the candle-test should be applied. 

Go next to the near front leg. Next to the eyes the front legs 
are of the greatest importance for saddle-horses. Pass the hand 
along the withers and the shoulder for saddle-galls, sitfasts, and 
collar-galls, and over the elbow for shoe-boi^ls. 

The knees should be must carefully inspected for broken knees. 
While no serious injury may have resulted to the horse's knees by 
his falling on them, while the joint may be perfectly unimpaired, 
still the fact that the horse has fallen on his knees at some time 
in his history should cause the careful purchaser to end his exam- 
ination with the discovery of scars of broken knees. 

The nerves of the feet are possessed of marvelous sensitiveness, 
considering their horny covering, and an animal whose shoulder 
is sloping enough to plant his foot well out in front of him will not 
fall, unless he is tired out from extraordinary exertions, or unless 
he is seriously unsound in one or both of his front legs. Whatever 
the cause of the broken knees, reject the horse. 

If the knees are sound, look at the head of the cannon-bone, 
on the inside, for scars of speedy cut. This, as we have seen, is 
a defect of action caused by bad conformation. It is a fault diffi- 
cult to eradicate. The blow is so painful as to frequently bring 
the horse to his knees. It is liable to recur at any time, and, as 
the blow is given only when the horse is going at top speed, the 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 219 

accident resulting from his fall is sure to be a serious one. For 
this reason, unless the horse is wanted for slow work, reject him 
when he shows a scar of speedy cut. 

Splints are found between the knee and fetlock, on or near 
the splint-bones. They are recognized as small bony knots, easily 
felt. If they lie forward on the cannon-bone and not near the knee, 
they are usually harmless. If they are on the back of the cannon- 
bone, they may interfere with the action of the tendons. To test 
this, apply pressure to the tendons. If the horse shows pain by 
flinching, and the tendons show inflammation, reject him. A pegged 
splint is almust sure to cause permanent lameness. 

Passing the hand down the back tendons, compress them stead- 
ily. Any tenderness or sign of inflammation is cause for rejection. 

Carefully inspect the fetlock, pastern, and ankle for wind-galls, 
ringbones, sidebones, and grease, and the coronet for treads and 
quittor. 

Inspect the pastern and ankle for scars of firing or neurotomy. 
Be very suspicious of any scars in this region. A horse that has 
been nerved has but a brief period of usefulness ahead of him. 

Pick up the foot and examine the sole for contracted heels, 
thrush, canker, and corns. See that the sole is concave, and that 
there is no irregularity in the shoe. Feel the coronet, walls, and 
heels for fever, or any other indications of laminitis. 

Tap the front of the foot with a knife or a coin for seedy toe, 
and look carefully for false quarter. Inspect closely the surface 
of the walls for signs of rasping out founder rings. If this has been 
done, unless the foot has been most carefully stained, the hoof will 
show varying colorings. Be especially careful in your scrutiny of 
a hoof that has been stained or polished. 

Inspect his nostrils for discharges of any character. A horse 
that has a nasal discharge is unsound, and the inspection should be 
put off for a few days to determine whether the discharge is or is not 
chronic. The nasal membranes should be moist, pale in color when 
the horse is quiet, and bright red after sharp exercise. They should 
be free from scars. 



220 



ELEMENTS OP HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 110. — A Study in Conformation. 

Sir Evelyn. 

Courtsey of Gerald T. Hanley, Esq. 

The ears should be free from warts, and easily handled. Do 
not expect a horse to permit his ears to be pulled about willingly, 
but he should allow them to be handled enough to be bridled easily 
and to have them trimmed and cleaned. 

The poll should be inspected for fistula. 

A good horse that has been well broken and kindly handled 
will not dodge or show the whites of his eyes when handled about 
the head. Such actions are the surest witnesses to abuse during 
his bringing up. 

Pass then to the off side, examining the jugular vein on each 
side for signs of blood-letting (to relieve congestion of the brain — 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 221 

blind staggers). Examine the withers and back from that side. 
Go over the right front leg with the same care and in the same 
manner thnt you used in the examination of the left one. 

Examine the back, especially the lumbar region, for evidences 
of kidney trouble. Examine the hip, croup, and stifle. Then pass 
to the hock. 

Raise the horse's tail, pull it to the off side with the left hand, 
stoop down slightly, and look at the inner side of the off hock from 
in front of the leg. If there is a protuberance on the lower edge 
of the hock-joint, inspect it with care for marks of blistering or 
firing. Feel it; if it is hard, it is probably a spavin, and the horse 
should not be bought. Look for bog-spavin, thoroughpin, capped 
hocks, and curb. 

Blistering is the process of producing artificial inflammation, 
by the application of a powerful liniment, to relieve congestion or 
to hasten bone-deposit. 

Firing produces the same result, in a more radical way, by 
actually burning the part with a hot iron. 

Blistering, if severe, leaves an irregular scar, partly denuded 
of hair. Rows of dots or thin parallel lines are the marks of firing. 

If there is any suspicion of spavin, a simple test is to pick up 
the leg, bend it well, and hold it up for a minute or two; then drop 
it, and start the horse off at a trot. If sound, he will not limp. 

The cannon-bone should be examined for splints, rare as they 
are behind, and the tendons examined for evidence of inflamed or 
sprained tendons. The same critical examination should be made 
of the feet as was made in front, and of the left hind leg as was 
made of the right. 

Examine the tail; see that the quarters are well filled up be- 
hind, and that all is in order under the dock. 

Examine the sheath; look under the belly to see that there are 
no warts or protuberances there, and that the belly is free from 
scars. Look on all the legs for wire cuts. 

The horse's action should next be tested. Have him led at a 



222 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 




Figure 111. — A Study in Conformation. 
Sir Edward, a Hunter. 

Courtesy of Lieut.-Col. H. T. Allen, U. S. Cavalry. 

slow gait away from you, noticing the action of the hocks, pasterns, 
and feet. Look closely for any dwelling on either hind leg, indi- 
cating lameness in the other. Watch his head, to see if he nods 
excessively. 

When he turns, note carefully the ease of action in the front 
legs, and, as he approaches, note the way he handles his front feet, 
and the carriage of his head. He should be trotted past the in- 
spector two or three hundred feet, again turned, and brought to a 
standstill near him. 

Avoid horses with hackney knee-action. They are almost sure 
to go wrong in front while young, and, while stylish, are expensive 
and not apt to be long serviceable. 



ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 223 

Notice his breathing, the expansion of his nostrils, the heave 
of his sides. 

Have him mounted next, and galloped sharply for a quarter of 
a mile or so, and again inspect his breathing. If he labors noise- 
lessly for breath (thick wind), if the period of exhalation is longer 
than the period of inhalation (heaves), if he makes a noise at both 
inhalation and exhalation (whistling), or during inhalation only 
(roaring), reject him. 

Feel his pulse; the most convenient place is at the jaw. A 
large artery runs around the lower border of the jaw-bone and up 
on the outside immediately in front of the heavy muscles of the 
cheek. It can be easiest felt where it curves around the jaw-bone, 
by pressing it gently against the bone. To take the pulse, press 
the balls of the first and second fingers against the artery. The 
count should be from 33 to 40 beats a minute; nearer the first 
number before exercise, and the latter just after. The pulse slows 
down in old age. It should be strong and regular. The heart can 
be easily heard by placing the ear at the base of the throat or on 
the ribs behind the shoulder. 

* An inspector who buys horses under contract should demand 
that they come up to the specifications of the contract. Contract- 
ors are presumed to have read the specifications before they make 
their bids. The Latter should be based on the value of the horses 
asked for, and nothing short of that should be expected. When 
horses of the grade advertised for are worth $175, a contractor who 
agrees to furnish them for SI 50 should not be permitted to put in 
inferior stock because of his false bid. Not only does the inspector 
bring himself into disrepute for accepting inferior animals, but 
honest bidders who are ready to deliver horses up to standard, at 
a proper price, are cut out of their right to do so. 

The whole theory of advertising for purchase by contract is 
based on the idea that bidders can learn what is wanted exactly, 
and can then figure at what price they can afford to make deliveries. 
If this theory is perverted by permitting contractors who have 



224 ELEMENTS OF HIPPOLOGY. 

made dishonest or haphazard bids to evade their contracts by fur- 
nishing as good horses as the price they offer would warrant, it 
would be better to abandon it altogether. 

Well-bred horses that may be predicted as capable of giving 
good service have about the following conformation: 

Head small, clear-cujb, and well set on a long, slender neck. 

Shoulders sloping well forward, muscular, and long. 

Front leg well muscled above the knee, cannon shorter than 
leg-bone, and both upright and straight, ankle sloping forward, long 
and elastic; fetlock, ankle, and pastern smooth, firm, and small. 

Feet small, sound, and with well-developed frogs. 

Barrel deep, long, and well ribbed up, about equal in size at 
girth and middle, and sloping gradually from the middle towards 
the sheath. 

Withers reasonably prominent and well muscled. 

Back flat, well muscled, and free from saddle-marks. 

Coupling short and strong. 

Croup slightly convex, viewed from side and rear. There should 
be considerable length from loin to tail, and not much curvature. 

Tail well set on, and, when the animal is in motion, carried 
away from the body. The hair should be fine and silky. 

Thighs prominent and muscular and well filled up, when viewed 
from behind. Measured from hip to hock, the thigh should be long. 

Hocks clean-cut, not puffy, wide from the side, large and well 
bent. The point of the hock should not be noticeably prominent. 
Both hocks, viewed from behind, should be parallel and straight 
under the horse's body. 

The cannon-bone should be flat and broad. Pasterns and feet 
as in front legs. 



UBRA* Y 



0F C0NG^ SS 



TSmm- 



■uiu 




